SOILING 
CROPS 


AND 

THE  SILO 


How  to  Cultivate  and  Harvest  the 
Crops ;  How  to  Build  and  Fill  the 
Silo ;  and  How  to  Use  Silage 

By-.. 

THOMAS  SHAW 

n 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at  the  University  of  Minnesota 

Author  of 

"Public  School  Agriculture"    "  Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them*1 
"The  Study  of  Breeds"    "Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses'* 


ILLUSTRATED 


New  York 
ORANGE  JIIDD  COMPANY 


Copyflg'nt  1900 

by 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPAWV 


PRINTED   IN    U.   S.   A, 


TO 

THE  DAIRYMEN  AND  FARMERS 

OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

THIS  WORK  IS 
MOST  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 

BY 
THE  AUTHOR 


263658 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The  author  desires  thankfully  to  acknowledge 
the  outside  sources  from  which  aid  was  obtained  in 
the  preparation  of  the  book.  These  include  sundry 
bulletins  issued  by  certain  of  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  United  States,  also  the  helpful 
work,  "A  Book  on  Silage,"  written  by  Prof.  F.  W. 
Woll  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  The  sketches 
were  nearly  all  prepared  by  Mr.  Charles  P.  Taylor  of 
the  University  of  Minnesota. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  ONE 


CHAPTER  L  PAGE. 

Sotting  Crops .....3 

CHAPTER  II. 
Indian  Cora  or  Maize ...-19 

CHAPTFP  III. 
Sorghum        ..------••     --34 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Non-Saccharine  Sorghums    ----•••51 

CHAPTER  V. 
Plants  of  the  Clover  Family  --------68 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Leguminous  Plants  Other  Than  Clover      -----  IO2 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Plants  of  the  Brassica  Genus  --------  139 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Common  Cereals l68 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Millets 183 

CHAPTER  X. 

Field  Roots 195 

vii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Miscellaneous  Plants ••••80S 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Succession  in  Soiling  Crops    -•••••••  332 


PART  TWO 

CHAPTER  I.  PAGE. 

The  History  of  Siloing    -      ---••••-  245 

CHAPTER  II.  I 

The  Benefits  from  Siloing  Crops  --•••••  258 

CHAPTER  III. 
Facts  Relating  to  Silo  Construction    -•••-•  269 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Building  the  Silo 292 

CHAPTER  V. 
Crops  Suitable  for  the  Silo      .....•••322 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Filling  the  Silo ---336 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Feeding  Silage     ..••••«••••  350 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE. 

1  The  Model  Shepherd— Frontispiece. 

2  Squaw  Corn  for  Fodder  --------20 

3  Giant  Fodder  Corn  for  Soiling  ------        27 

4  Early  Amber  Sorghum    --------35 

5  Sorghum  Grown  for  Soiling,  First  Cutting      -      -        43 

6  Red  Kafir  Corn    ----------53 

7  Yellow   Milo  Maize      --------        55 

8  Brown  Dhoura    -      .--------57 

9  Jerusalem  Corn    ----------        59 

10  Alfalfa,  Single  Plant 87 

11  Alfalfa,   Grown  for  Soiling      ------        99 

12  The  Mummy  Field  Pea    --------103 

13  Vetches  and  Oats  for  Soiling — Second  Cutting  -      -      115 

14  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Soy  Beans      ------  120 

15  Soy  Beans  for  Soiling          -------       127 

16  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Cowpeas      ------  130 

17  Cowpeas  Grown  for  Soiling      ------      137 

18  A  Dwarf  Essex  Rape  Plant 141 

19  Dwarf  Essex  Rape  for  Soiling  -      -      -      -      -      -      151 

20  Cabbage  for  Soiling   ---------  156 

21  Oats  and  Wheat  for  Soiling  or  Fodder  -      -      -      -      169 

22  Oats  and  Peas  for  Soiling      -------  178 

23  Oats  First  Pastured,  Then  Grown  for  Soiling    -      -      180 

24  German  Millet  for  Soiling      -------  184 

25  Hungarian  Millet  for  Soiling    ------      186 

26  Sand  Vetch    -----------  219 

27  Jerusalem  Artichokes    --------      227 

28  Sunflowers      --------..-  229 

29  Sheep  Barn  with  Round  Silo    ------      294 

30  Section  of  Stave  Silo      --------  296 

31  Splice  of  Stave  with  Iron  Tongue  -----      303 

32  Lugs  for  Hoops   ----------  304 

33  Door  of  Stave  Silo  ---------      306 

34  Sketch  Showing  Stave  Silo  with  Shute,  Ladder  and 

Hand  Cart -----  307 

35  Sketch  Showing  Stave  Silo  with  Roof  and  Lugs  Prop- 

erly Distributed  ---------      309 

36  Section  of  Wall  of  Rectangular  Silo  -----  310 

37  Elephant  Fodder  Corn-      -------324 

38  Scrghum  for  Silage    ------•••  326 

ix 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


This  book  is  one  of  a  series  on  agriculture 
which  the  author  hopes  to  be  spared  to  complete.  It 
is  designed  more  especially  to  meet  the  needs  of 
dairymen  when  providing  green  food  for  their  stock, 
summer  and  winter,  but  it  is  also  intended  to  be 
similarly  helpful  to  all  farmers  who  keep  domestic 
animals  on  the  arable  farm,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
student  also  at  the  agricultural  college  may  be  able  to 
glean  from  its  pages  what  will  be  helpful  to  him 
when  prosecuting  his  investigations.  Excellent 
information  on  the  subject  of  soiling  and  also  on  that 
of  the  silo  has  been  furnished  by  various  authors, 
but  in  a  form  more  or  less  fragmentary,  irregular 
and  incomplete.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author 
in  the  present  work  to  cover  these  subjects  with  at 
least  a  measurable  degree  of  completeness  and 
system. 

In  writing  a  series  of  books  on  agriculture,  it  Is 
not  easy  to  avoid  some  repetition.  In  fact,  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  do  so.  For  example,  when 
one  book  treats  of  forage  crops  other  than  grasses 
and  is  followed  by  a  second  on  soiling  crops  and  the 
silo,  as  in  the  present  instance,  it  will  be  found  that 
many  of  the  crops  grown  for  these  respective  uses 
are  the  same.  They  are  grown  on  the  same  kinds  o  I 
soils,  and  the  methods  of  growing  them  are  similar 

xi 


xii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

If  each  treatise  is  to  be  complete  in  itself,  the 
methods  of  growing  these  respective  crops  must  be 
given  in  both,  and  this  necessitates  some  repetition. 
It  has  been,  and  will  be,  the  constant  aim  of  the 
author,  however,  to  avoid  such  repetition  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent.  By  combining  two  or  more 
separate  treatises  in  one,  repetition  could  be  almost 
entirely  avoided,  but  the  purchaser  would  then  have 
to  pay  for  matter  in  which  he  might  not  be  interested 
in  order  to  obtain  that  which  was  of  special  interest 
to  him.  Of  the  two  plans,  the  author  believes  that 
he  has  chosen  that  which  will  be  more  advantageous 
to  the  general  public. 

University  Experiment  Farm, 

St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.,  1900. 


PART  ONE 


SOILING  CROPS 


CHAPTER  I. 

SOILING    CROPS. 

Soiling  crops  are  those  which  are  sown  from 
time  to  time  to  furnish  food  for  domestic  animals, 
and  which  are  to  be  harvested  while  yet  immature 
and  fed  to  them  in  the  pasture,  the  paddock,  the  feed 
lot  or  the  stall.  Corn  cut  and  thus  fed  to  animals  at 
any  stage  prior  to  maturity  furnishes  an  illustration 
of  a  soiling  food.  A  soiling  food  is,  therefore, 
another  name  for  a  green  food.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  it  shall  be  fed  as  soon  as  harvested,  but  it  is 
necessary  that  it  shall  be  fed  in  the  green  form.  Corn 
preserved  in  the  silo  is  essentially  a  soiling  food, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  cut  when  immature  and  in  that  con- 
dition is  fed  to  live  stock,  though  it  may  not  be  fed 
for  months  after  it  has  been  cut,  as  for  instance, 
when  it  has  been  preserved  in  the  silo,  hence  the 
propriety  of  combining  the  subject  of  soiling  crops 
and  the  silo  in  this  treatise. 

Soiling  crops  differ  from  forage  crops  in  that 
the  former  are  harvested  and  then  carried  to  the 
animals  which  consume  them,  whereas  live  stock 
gather  the  latter  for  themselves;  and  soiling  differ 
from  fodder  crops  in  their  being  cut  and  fed  green, 
whereas  fodder  crops  are  frequently  harvested  when 
mature  or  approaching  maturity  and  are  always 
fed  to  animals  in  the  cured  form.  People 
who  are  disposed  to  follow  rigidly  the  teachings 

3 


4  .    .SOILING    CROPS    AND   THE   SILO. 

"    * 


dictionaries  will  probably  take  some 
;  to\  -tKese  definitions,  but  the  time  has 
certainly  come  when  more  precision  must  be  given 
to  at  least  some  of  the  definitions  in  agriculture,  to 
prevent  confusion  of  ideas.  For  instance,  the  defini- 
tion of  forage  crops  given  in  our  best  authorities 
would  make  these  include  soiling  crops  also.  Such 
a  definition  is  at  variance  with  common  usage,  and 
surely  the  popular  idea  when  consistent  and  legiti- 
mate is  of  higher  authority  even  than  that  of  the 
recognized  standards. 

Adaptation  in  Soiling  Crops.  —  The  growing  of 
soiling  crops  is  chiefly  adapted  to  an  intensive 
cultivation.  It  may  be  better  associated  with  the 
tillage  of  small  rather  than  of  large  farms  and  is 
better  adapted  to  localities  where  the  population  is 
crowded  and  markets  are  near,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  large  cities.  It  was  to  be 
expected  therefore  that  the  growing  of  soiling  foods 
would  first  receive  attention  in  the  east,  and  so  it  did. 
But  the  day  is  coming,  and  is  near,  when  in  one  or  the 
other  of  its  forms  it  will  be  most  extensively  carried 
on  also  in  the  west,  and  more  especially  in  those 
sections  in  which  dairying  prevails. 

Soiling  is,  of  course,  only  necessary  on  farms 
on  which  live  stock  are  kept  more  or  less  numerously. 
And  even  on  these  it  may  not  be  much  needed  when 
pastures  are  plentiful  and  succulent  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  grazing  season.  It  is  more  needed 
in  dry  than  in  moist  climates,  on  poor  than  on  rich 
lands,  and  where  milk  is  sought  rather  than  beef. 

Partial  and  Complete  Soiling.  —  Partial  soiling 
means  supplementing  the  pastures  with  green  food 


SOILING    CROPS.  5 

for  a  part  of  the  season,  as  occasion  may  require. 
Such  food  may  be  given  once  a  day  or  oftener, 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  animals.  The  chief 
object  sought  in  partial  soiling  is  to  keep  domestic 
animals  abundantly  supplied  with  palatable  and 
nutritious  food,  when  the  food  from  the  pastures  is 
inadequate.  And  where  milk  production  is  involved 
it  aims  to  furnish  succulent  food  after  the  grass  pas- 
tures have  lost  much  of  their  succulence,  even  though 
they  should  still  be  abundant.  Partial  soiling  is  best 
adapted  to  a  system  of  cultivation  that  is  intermediate 
between  the  extensive  and  intensive  systems ;  that  is 
to  say,  to  a  system  that  meets  the  needs  of  the  average 
arable  farm.  In  all  countries  with  summer  climates 
deficient  in  moisture  it  is  an  essential  appendage  and 
material  help  to  dairying.  In  no  other  way  can  the 
dairyman  keep  up  a  maximum  milk  flow  at  so  small 
an  outlay. 

Complete  soiling  has  reference  to  that  system 
by  which  domestic  animals  are  sustained  on  food  fed 
to  them  in  the  stall,  the  feed  lot,  or  the  paddock  dur- 
ing all  the  year.  It  does  not  imply  that  all  the  food 
so  fed  shall  be  given  to  the  animals  in  the  green  form, 
but  that  green  food  will  usually  form  a  considerable 
portion,  if  not,  indeed,  the  greater  part,  of  the  ration. 
Complete  soiling  is  adapted  to  an  intensive  system 
of  cultivation ;  that  is  to  say,  where  cultivable  lands 
are  scarce  and  dear,  and  from  which  it  is  necessary 
to  obtain  a  maximum  yield  while  they  are  being 
tilled.  Its  general  adoption  in  this  country  where 
land  is  so  plentiful,  and  in  which  it  is  relatively  so 
cheap,  is  probably  remote  rather  than  near,  notwith- 
standing that  it  has  been  practiced  in  some  sections 


6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

of  the  thickly  populated  countries  of  western  Europe 
for  many  years. 

Benefits  from  Growing  Soiling  Crops. — The 
following  are  the  more  important  benefits  from 
growing  soiling  crops :  I,  Food  supplies  are  increased 
in  a  marked  degree;  2,  in  various  ways  the  waste 
in  feeding  is  lessened;  3,  animals  are  sustained  in 
better  form  than  where  soiling  is  not  practiced;  4, 
injury  to  the  land  through  poaching  is  prevented ;  5, 
a  salutary  influence  is  exercised  on  weed  eradication ; 
6,  a  saving  in  land  is  effected ;  7,  a  saving  in  fertility 
is  effected ;  8,  a  saving  is  also  effected  in  the  item  of 
fencing;  9,  animal  production  is  greatly  increased; 
and,  10,  the  cost  of  keeping  the  family  cow  is 
lessened. 

Increase  in  Food  Supplies. — Soiling  enables  the 
farmer  to  grow  more  food  than  he  could  by  any 
other  system,  Usually  the  growth  of  plants  is  hin- 
dered in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  the  plants 
are  pastured  down  while  yet  immature.  And  crops 
that  are  pastured  are  further  injured  by  the  tramping 
of  the  animals  that  feed  upon  them.  They  are  injured 
directly  by  the  bruising  which  they  receive  from  the 
hoofs  of  the  animals  which  feed  upon  them,  and 
indirectly  by  the  impaction  of  the  land  from  pastur- 
ing it  when  not  dry  enough.  These  facts  are  simply 
mentioned  without  taking  space  to  give  the  reasons. 
And  since  soiling  crops  are  usually  cut  a  little  short 
of  maturity  it  is  more  practicable  to  grow  two  crops 
from  the  same  land,  where  soiling  is  practiced,  thar 
where  it  is  not. 

The  relative  increase  in  food  production  where 
soiling  is  practiced  as  compared  with  pasturage  can 


SOILING    CROPS.  7 

not  of  course  be  stated  otherwise  than  in  the  most 
approximate  manner.  It  will  vary  greatly  with  such 
conditions  as  soil  and  season.  But  it  will  not  be 
extravagant  to  say  that  when  animals  are  soiled  all 
the  year  in  the  one  instance,  and  when  they  are  pas- 
tured during  the  season  of  pasturage,  and  are  then 
wintered  on  food  grown  on  other  land  in  the  other 
instance,  a  given  area  will  sustain  at  least  twice  the 
number  of  animals  through  the  year  by  the  former 
system  than  it  will  by  the  latter. 

Less  Waste  in  Feeding. — When  crops  are  fed 
under  the  soiling  system  there  is  less  waste  than  when 
pastured  or  fed  in  the  matured  form.  This  saving 
is  effected,  first,  in  the  absence  of  injury  through 
treading  as  compared  with  pasture  crops ;  second,  in 
the  absence  of  loss  in  harvesting  as  compared  with 
matured  crops ;  and,  third,  in  the  more  complete  con- 
sumption of  the  food.  The  injury  to  pasture  crops 
through  treading  has  already  been  referred  to. 

Soiling  crops  when  judiciously  managed  are 
seldom  so  injured  by  the  weather  as  to  be  rendered 
unfit  for  food.  Fodder  crops  when  matured  are  fre- 
quently damaged  by  rain  when  being  cured.  When 
thus  damaged  they  lose  in  palatability,  in  nutrition, 
and  also  through  mold  induced  by  storing  when  not 
yet  fully  cured. 

The  more  complete  consumption  of  food  fed  in 
the  green  form  as  compared  with  food  fed  when  ripe, 
arises  chiefly  from  the  greater  palatability  of  the 
former.  The  fodder  portion  of  plants,  that  is  to 
say,  the  stems  and  leaves,  is  always  better  relished  by 
animals  when  fed  before  they  are  fully  matured.  For 
instance,  feed  rye  to  cattle  when  it  has  not  yet  reached 


8  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  earing  stage,  and  it  will  be  eaten  with  avidity. 
Feed  it  when  fully  out  in  head  and  it  will  be  eaten 
indifferently.  Feed  it  when  ripe  and  little  else  than 
the  heads  will  be  eaten.  Feed  the  straw  after  the  grain 
has  been  threshed,  and  it  will  be  consumed  by  the 
animals  only  when  impelled  by  hunger.  Chemists 
tell  us  that  fodder  plants  contain  all  the  food  ele- 
ments that  they  will  possess  at  the  time  the  ripening 
process  begins,  that  is  to  say,  by  the  time  they  have 
reached  that  stage  when  the  stalk  begins  to  assume 
a  yellow  tinge  at  the  ground.  They  should  be  fed, 
therefore,  as  soiling  food  before  they  pass  this  stage, 
for  as  soon  as  they  get  beyond  it  there  is  loss  in 
palatability.  And  there  is  loss  in  digestibility  as  the 
ripening  stage  is  neared,  that  is  to  say,  the  propor- 
tion of  the  indigestible  woody  fiber  is  increased. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  plants  are  cut  when 
considerably  short  of  maturity,  there  is  loss  from 
want  of  sufficient  development.  Theoretically,  the 
most  food  will  be  got  from  plants  when  they  are  cut 
as  soiling  food  a  little  short  of  maturity.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  this  is  impossible,  as  it  would  too  much 
curtail  the  length  of  the  period  for  feeding  each  crop. 
But  with  crops  that  grow  again  and  again,  as  with 
alfalfa,  for  instance,  there  is  no  loss  probably  in  cut- 
ting them  as  soon  as  they  have  made  sufficient 
growth  to  justify  the  expenditure  of  the  labor 
involved. 

Sustains  Animals  in  Better  Form. — By  the  aid 
of  soiling  food  domestic  animals  can  be  maintained 
in  better  form  than  without  it.  With  such  aid  they 
can  be  maintained  in  a  more  even  condition,  the  ani- 
mal energy  can  be  more  perfectly  conserved,  and  the 


SOILING    CROPS.  Q 

succulence  of  the  foods  usually  exercises  a  whole- 
some influence  on  the  health  of  the  stock. 

In  the  absence  of  soiling  foods  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible for  the  farmer  to  keep  his  animals  through  all 
the  year  in  what  may  be  termed  a  well  balanced  con- 
dition. When  he  depends  wholly  on  pastures  during 
the  summer  season  these  may  fail.  When  they  do 
his  animals  suffer  proportionately.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  pastures  are  superabundant  there  is 
waste.  When  pastures  lose  their  succulence,  the 
milk  flow  from  milk-giving  animals  is  proportion- 
ately reduced,  and  no  after  feeding  will  wholly 
restore  it,  howsoever  suitable  it  may  be.  As  the 
character  of  the  season  cannot  be  foreseen,  farmers 
are  wise  who  make  provision  for  a  possible  shortage 
in  pasture  by  sowing  more  or  less  of  one  or  more 
crops  to  provide  soiling  food.  If  the  best  possible 
returns  are  to  be  obtained  from  animals,  they 
must  be  well  supplied  with  food  every  day  in  the 
year.  When  animals  are  fed  in  whole  or  in  part 
on  soiling  foods,  they  may  frequently  be  kept 
nearer  at  hand  than  when  not  so  fed,  hence 
their  needs  can  be  more  easily  met.  When 
the  days  are  hot  they  may  be  more  easily 
housed.  In  the  time  of  flies  they  may  be  more  easily 
protected  from  the  same  by  keeping  them  in  cool, 
darkened  sheds  or  stables  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 
In  hot  weather  they  can  be  left  out  in  paddocks  over 
night,  and  in  cold  weather  they  can  be  housed.  Such 
attentions  have  a  marked  influence  in  maintaining 
an  equilibrium  of  condition. 

The  use  of  soiling  foods  conserves  animal  energy 
by  lessening  that  waste  which  arises  from  undue 


10  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

exertion  on  the  part  of  animals  when  gathering  their 
food.  When  the  dairy  cow  has  to  travel  far  when 
seeking  food  in  the  pastures,  she  does  so  at  the 
expense  of  food  required  to  sustain  the  prolonged 
exertion.  And  when  food  is  thus  used  to  sustain 
energy  it  is  very  evident  that  it  cannot  be  used  to 
make  milk.  Likewise,  when  growing  cattle  have  to 
travel  beyond  a  certain  limit  in  order  to  get  supplies 
for  the  day,  they  do  so  at  the  expense  of  flesh.  And 
the  same  is  true  of  the  horse,  the  sheep  and  the  pig. 
Live  stock  should,  of  course,  be  given  sufficient  exer- 
cise to  keep  them  healthy  and  to  give  them  proper 
stamina.  Beyond  this,  exercise  means  waste  of  food, 
and  this  waste  can  be  prevented  by  growing  a  suffi- 
ciency of  soiling  foods. 

Soiling  foods,  judiciously  fed,  tend  to  keep  the 
animal  system  in  proper  tone,  hence  thus  far  they 
exert  a  favorable  influence  on  the  health  of  live  stock 
to  which  they  are  fed.  In  the  absence  of  those  foods 
it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  keep  the  system  in 
the  best  of  tone  during  certain  periods  of  the  year. 
Where  soiling  foods  are  not  grown  there  can  be  no 
assurance  of  succulence  in  the  pastures  beyond  the 
early  summer  months.  Pastures  will  not  sustain  an 
undiminished  milk  flow  in  cows,  even  when  consid- 
erably short  of  the  yellow  leaf  stage.  When  dry 
and  crisp  they  are  a  less  valuable  food  than  well  cured 
hay,  notwithstanding  that  the  food  may  be  abundant. 
On  such  pastures  swine  will  soon  lose  flesh  unless 
the  pastures  are  supplemented  with  other  food.  By 
growing  succulent  foods  in  due  succession  and  in 
adequate  sufficiency  they  may  be  made  available  for 
live  stock  in  one  form  or  the  other  during  a  large 


SOILING    CROPS.  II 

part  of  the  year,  if  not,  indeed,  through  the  whole 
year ;  hence  the  beneficial  influence  which  they  exert 
on  the  health  of  the  animals  may  be  made  continually 
operative.  But  there  are  other  senses  in  which  the 
soiling  system  may  become  prejudicial  to  the  health 
of  the  animals.  These  are  discussed  on  Page  18. 

Injury  Through  Poaching. — When  the  soiling 
system  is  practiced,  lands  are  not  injured  by  poach- 
ing, that  is,  by  the  treading  of  the  animals  when  the 
hoofs  sink  below  the  surface  of  the  land.  On  all 
soils  poaching  is  to  some  extent  harmful,  and  on  clays 
it  is  quite  harmful,  since  impaction  follows  on  the 
return  of  dry  weather  to  the  very  great  injury  to  the 
growth  of  the  grasses.  As  no  person  can  control 
the  weather,  the  farmer  who  is  dependent  on  pastures 
only  to  provide  food  for  his  live  stock  in  the  season 
of  growth  must  needs  allow  them  to  feed  upon  the 
pastures  betimes  when  they  will  injure  them  by 
treading ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  close  grazing  in 
very  dry  weather  may  seriously  injure  pastures. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  pastures  in  some  parts  of 
the  dry  west.  The  farmer  without  soiling  food  may 
be  powerless  to  prevent  such  a  result. 

Influence  on  Weed  Eradication. — The  soiling 
system  may  be  made  to  render  material  aid  in  eradi- 
cating weeds.  This  arises,  first,  from  the  thickness 
with  which  the  food  may  be  grown;  second,  from 
the  season  at  which  much  of  it  may  be  sown ;  and, 
third,  from  the  immature  period  at  which  it  is  reaped. 

Soiling  food  may  be  sown  more  thickly  rela- 
tively than  if  the  same  plant  or  plants  were  sown  to 
produce  a  matured  crop  of  seeds.  Such  sowing 
secures  more  of  fineness  in  the  food,  and  in 


12  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

consequence  more  of  palatability.  The  food  thus 
grown  crowds  weeds  because  of  its  thickness,  and 
also  hinders  their  development  because  of  the  density 
of  the  shade. 

Soiling  food  may  be  sown  at  different  seasons 
because  of  the  difference  in  the  habits  of  the  plants 
thus  grown.  Several  varieties  may  be  sown  late. 
When  these  varieties  are  thus  sown,  ample  time  is 
given  to  sprout  and  in  turn  to  destroy  myriads  of 
weed  seeds  that  may  be  in  the  upper  section  of  the 
tillable  soil.  In  fact,  where  such  cultivation  is  what 
it  ought  to  be,  the  grounr  will  be  comparatively  clean 
before  the  crop  is  grown  or  planted. 

As  soiling  foods  are  cut  while  yet  immature,  the 
weeds  which  grow  in  them  have  not  the  same  chance 
to  mature  as  though  the  crop  had  been  allowed  to 
stand  until  fully  ripe.  Notably  is  this  true  of  soil- 
ing crops  that  are  sown  reasonably  early.  And  when 
these  are  removed  early  in  the  season,  another  soil- 
ing crop,  or  a  catch  crop  of  some  kind  may  be  made 
to  follow  the  first  one.  This  second  crop  will  also 
be  helpful  to  the  cleaning  of  the  land. 

Saving  in  Land. — Growing  soiling  foods  effects 
a  great  saving  in  land,  as  it  enables  the  grower  to 
raise  much  more  food  from  a  given  area.  The  sav- 
ing thus  effected  is  greater  relatively  in  the  west  and 
south  than  in  the  east  and  north.  This  arises  from 
the  greater  relative  adaptability  of  the  east  and  north 
to  the  growing  of  grass  pastures,  and  from  the 
greater  relative  adaptability  of  the  west  and  south 
to  the  growing  of  soiling  foods.  The  extent  of  the 
saving  will  vary  with  the  conditions.  But  it  would 
not  be  extravagant  to  say  that  ordinarily  where 


SOILING    CROPS.  13 

three  acres  of  grass  are  required  to  keep  a  milch  cow 
in  good  form  for  six  months,  it  would  be  possible 
to  grow  enough  soiling  food  to  keep  the  same  ';ow 
all  the  year.  In  some  sections  of  the  prairie  ir.  the 
far  west,  where  cultivated  grasses  have  not  been 
grown  with  marked  success,  the  difference  would  be 
even  greater.  In  instances,  not  a  few,  it  has  been 
found  possible  to  grow  ample  supplies  of  food  on  one 
acre  by  the  soiling  system  to  feed  a  cow  all  year. 
As  the  population  becomes  more  dense,  and  as  popu- 
lous cities  multiply,  the  saving  in  land  effected  by 
soiling  in  either  of  its  forms  will  increase  in  impor- 
tance, and  more  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities 
than  elsewhere. 

Saving  in  Fences. — Growing  soiling  foods  les- 
sens the  necessity  for  building  fences  on  farms  on 
which  live  stock  are  kept.  A  marked  saving  is  thus 
effected  in  labor  and  money,  the  extent  of  the  saving 
being  proportional  to  the  number  of  animals  kept, 
to  the  cost  of  labor  and  materials  for  fencing.  Unless 
where  the  materials  for  fencing  are  very  cheap,  it  is 
a  costly  affair,  both  to  build  and  to  maintain  fences. 
It  is  seldom  that  any  kind  of  fence,  strong  enough 
to  secure  cattle,  can  be  built  for  less  than  twenty-five 
to  fifty  cents  per  rod,  when  labor  and  material  are 
included,  and  in  some  instances  the  outlay  would  be 
much  greater.  This  outlay,  or  much  of  it,  must 
needs  be  repeated  at  least  every  other  decade,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  sums  paid  out  from  time  to  time  in 
repairs.  There  is  also  the  further  objection  that  on 
the  strip  of  land  on  which  the  fence  stands,  weeds 
are  much  prone  to  grow,  unless  considerable  hand 
labor  is  expended  in  keeping  them  down. 


14  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  assume  that  the 
soiling  system  will  entirely  obviate  the  necessity  for 
fences.  Theoretically,  where  complete  soiling  is 
carried  on  no  fencing  would  be  required  other  than 
that  used  in  enclosing  the  yards  and  paddocks  in 
which  the  animals  are  to  be  exercised,  or  in 
•which  they  are  to  be  kept  over  night  in  warm 
weather.  But  this  idea  must  not  be  pressed  too  far, 
for  where  sufficient  stamina  in  live  stock  are  to  be 
maintained,  animals  must  have  exercise  beyond  what 
they  will  voluntarily  take  in  small  paddocks. 

Saving  in  Fertility. — The  soiling  system  effects 
a  great  saving  in  fertility,  since  it  enables  the  farmer 
to  make  more  and  better  manure  than  can  be  obtained 
from  live  stock  kept  on  the  pasturing  system,  and 
less  of  what  is  thus  made  is  wasted.  More  manure 
is  made,  first,  because  the  animals  are  at  all  times  on 
full  feed,  whereas  on  pasture  they  are  frequently  on 
short  supplies,  and,  second,  because  by  the  soiling 
system  a  greater  number  of  animals  can  be  sustained 
on  a  given  area.  The  manure  made  is  likely  to  be 
more  valuable,  since  along  with  soiling  food  greater 
quantities  of  meal,  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant 
growth,  are  usually  fed.  And  there  is  less  waste  in 
the  manure  made  if  properly  saved,  since  its  value  is 
not  then  impaired  by  insects  and  other  adverse  influ- 
ences, as  it  is  when  dropped  in  the  field.  In  many 
instances  the  soiling  system  will  enable  the  farmer 
to  more  than  double  the  value  of  the  manurial  prod- 
uct made,  as  it  enables  him  to  more  than  double  the 
supplies  of  food  grown. 

Increase  in  Animal  Production. — Such  a  system 
cannot  fail  to  increase  animal  production.  The 


SOILING    CROPS.  15 

extent  of  this  increase  will  be  in  proportion  to  its 
completeness.  If  it  increases  the  food  products  100 
per  cent,  it  will  also  increase  the  milk  or  meat  pro- 
duction more  than  100  per  cent,  since  the  animals 
maintained  will  be  increased  proportionately.  They 
will  also  be  maintained  on  foods  at  all  times  ample 
in  quantity  and  of  correct  adaptation.  These  influ- 
ences will  tend  to  a  further  increase  of  production. 
The  greater  outlay  involved,  however,  in  securing 
this  added  increase  should  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

Sustaining  the  Family  Cow. — In  villages,  in 
suburbs  of  towns  and  cities,  quite  a  number  of  the 
inhabitants  keep  cows.  To  such  people  the  cow  is 
a  source  of  untold  blessing,  because  of  the  utility  of 
the  product  which  she  gives.  Oftentimes  those  peo- 
ple are  unable  to  secure  adequate  pastures.  This 
difficulty  may  easily  be  overcome  when  the  owner  of 
a  cow  possesses  a  small  piece  of  land.  He  can  then 
supplement  the  pastures  by  growing  soiling  foods, 
and  with  great  advantage  to  both  cow  and  land. 
Where  but  one  cow  is  kept,  a  small  area  will  suffice 
to  supply  her  needs. 

Some  Objections  to  the  Soiling  System. — To 
the  soiling  system  there  are  some  objections.  Chief 
among  these  are  the  following:  i,  It  involves 
increased  outlay  for  labor ;  2,  it  requires  more  con- 
stant attention  on  the  part  of  the  attendants ;  3,  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  adjust  the  food  supplies  to  the 
needs  of  the  animals,  and,  4,  it  may,  in  some  instances, 
tend  to  impair  the  stamina  of  live  stock. 

Increased  Outlay  for  Labor. — The  soiling  sys- 
tem cannot  be  adopted  in  either  of  its  forms  without 
a  considerable  increase  in  the  labor  of  those  who  care 


1 6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

for  the  live  stock  so  fed.  Even  in  the  partial  form, 
increase  in  labor  is  considerable.  In  the  complete 
form,  it  is  much  greater ;  and  of  course  increase  in 
labor  involves  a  corresponding  increase  in  outlay. 
The  increase  in  labor  arises,  first,  from  the  necessity 
for  cutting  the  food  daily,  or  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  two  or  three  days;  second,  from  the  necessity 
for  handling  and  conveying  it  to  the  animals  in  the 
green  form;  third,  from  the  necessity  for  feeding 
and  otherwise  caring  for  the  animals  from  day  to 
day  in  the  pasture,  paddock,  shed  or  stall;  fourth,  in 
caring  for  the  yards  or  paddocks  and  in  handling 
the  manure.  From  the  sum  of  this  labor,  however, 
in  making  the  comparison,  there  should  be  deducted 
the  less  amount  of  the  labor  necessary  in  providing 
fencing.  Notwithstanding,  the  extra  labor  involved, 
and  the  increased  expenditure  resulting  therefrom, 
is  the  one  great  standing  hindrance  in  the  way  of  the 
more  general  adoption  of  the  system  of  complete 
soiling  by  the  farmers  of  this  country.  Nor  is  the 
adoption  of  complete  soiling  likely  to  become  general 
until  farm  labor  becomes  cheaper  and  until  land 
becomes  scarcer  and  dearer.  But  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  day  is  not  very 
far  distant  when  complete  soiling  will  be  practiced 
by  a  considerable  number  of  the  farmers  in  every 
state  of  the  Union. 

Partial  soiling  does  not  involve  nearly  so  much 
labor  as  complete  soiling,  hence  it  is  practiced  by  a 
greater  number  of  farmers.  Dairymen,  especially, 
cannot  well  get  along  without  it.  The  necessity  for 
thus  growing  and  feeding  food  to  supplement  the 
pastures  increases  with  the  dryness  of  the  climate.  So 


SOILING    CROPS.  I/ 

essential  is  it  to  the  highest  success  in  raising  and 
properly  maintaining  farm  stock  that  it  must  even- 
tually be  practiced  by  all  or  nearly  all  farmers  \vho 
do  not  follow  the  system  of  complete  soiling. 

Tax  on  Attendants. — Where  complete  soiling 
is  carried  on,  the  care  of  the  animals  must  be  con- 
tinuous throughout  the  season.  Every  day  thereof 
brings  its  round  of  duties,  and  they  cannot  be  neg- 
lected except  at  the  expense  of  the  live  stock.  Food 
must  be  secured  for  the  animals  with  unfailing  regu- 
larity, it  must  be  fed  to  them  every  day,  and  usually 
two  or  three  times  a  day.  To  the  average  farm 
laborer  this  work  savors  so  much  of  the  treadmill 
order  that  it  is  distasteful.  He  looks  upon  it  in  the 
light  of  a  yoke  which  he  does  not  care  to  take  upon 
himself.  Hence,  until  those  better  days  come  when 
such  labor  will  be  looked  upon  through  a  proper  lens, 
for  it  has  its  compensations,  the  adoption  of  the 
soiling  system  in  either  form  will  be  relatively  slow. 

Adjusting  Food  Supplies. — Complete  soiling 
calls  for  the  exercise  of  much  thought  in  securing 
food  supplies  and  in  adjusting  them  to  the  needs  of 
the  animals.  There  must  needs  be  succession  in 
foods  to  keep  up  a  constant  supply.  No  one  food  is 
at  its  best  for  soiling  uses  for  many  weeks  in  succes- 
sion. There  must  also  be  variety  in  the  foods  thus 
grown  in  succession.  This  is  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  animals  to  which  the  foods  are  fed.  It  is 
further  rendered  imperative  by  the  different  periods 
of  the  year  when  various  plants  grow  and  mature 
sufficiently  for  being  fed  at  their  best.  A  supply 
of  these  foods  must  always  be  on  hand  through 
sunshine  and  storm.  In  some  instances,  however, 

3 


l8  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

showers  fall  frequently  and  for  days  in  succession, 
so  that  it  may  not  be  easy  to  secure  food  supplies 
unless  when  soaked  with  rain;  and  it  may  be  also 
more  or  less  soiled  with  earth.  To  properly  adjust 
these  matters  in  the  face  of  varying-  seasons  is  no 
easy  task.  It  cannot  be  done  without  the  exercise 
of  much  forethought. 

Impaired  Stamina  in  the  Stock. — While,  as  has 
been  shown,  the  soiling  system  tends  to  promote 
good  health  in  live  stock,  it  may  easily  be  so  con- 
ducted as  to  ultimately  injure  stamina  in  the  animals 
subjected  to  its  conditions.  Up  to  a  certain  limit, 
utility  in  live  stock  is  improved  through  artificial 
conditions.  Beyond  this  limit,  stamina  are  weak- 
ened. Where  the  border  line  runs  between  the  most 
approved  conditions  of  environment  and  conditions 
that  lead  to  deterioration,  is  not  always  easily  deter- 
mined. Unnecessary  exertion  on  the  part  of  animals 
when  getting  this  food  lessens  production.  Insuffi- 
cient exertion  lessens  stamina.  Under  the  complete 
soiling  system  the  individual  must  guard  against 
undue  confinement  of  the  animals,  or  their  natural 
vigor  will  wane.  All  history  and  experience  point 
to  increased  mortality  among  animals  and  also 
among  men  in  proportion  as  they  are  aggregated 
under  conditions  of  much  restraint.  The  dangers 
of  undue  restraint,  however,  do  not  apply  to  animals 
subjected  only  to  the  conditions  which  partial  soiling 
imposes.  And  with  complete  soiling,  it  is  probable 
that  they  may,  in  a  great  measure,  be  avoided  by 
giving  due  attention  to  the  conditions  which  are 
necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  improved  vigor  in 
domestic  animals. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INDIAN     CORN    OR    MAIZE. 

It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  Indian 
corn  (Zea  Mays)  furnishes  more  food  for  live  stock 
than  any  other  plant  now  grown  in  the  United 
States,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  do  so  through  all 
the  years  that  are  yet  to  come.  Taking  everything 
into  consideration  it  will  probably  produce  more  food 
per  acre  for  domestic  animals  than  any  other  plant, 
and  there  are  but  few  foods  which  can  be  fed  in  a 
greater  variety  of  ways.  In  furnishing  soiling  food 
on  unirrigated  land,  it  is  in  some  respects  without  a 
rival  on  the  American  continent.  So  great  is  its 
value  for  this  use  that  in  the  near  future  very  few 
sections  will  be  found  in  all  the  United  States  in 
which  it  will  not  be  grown  on  a  large  majority  of  the 
farms  by  those  who  keep  live  stock. 

Green  corn  is  pre-eminently  a  food  for  dairy 
cows  when  in  milk,  owing  in  part  to  the  close  relation 
between  succulence  in  food  and  free  milk  production. 
But  it  may  also  be  fed  with  much  advantage  to  other 
classes  of  cattle  when  pastures  are  scant,  and  also  to 
horses  of  all  ages,  although  to  horses  at  work  it 
should  not  be  given  in  large  quantities,  lest  a  too  lax 
condition  of  the  bowels  be  induced.  It  furnishes 
excellent  green  food  for  sheep,  when  of  fine  growth. 
It  also  furnishes  food  for  swine  that  is  much  relished 
by  them,  especially  when  the  corn  is  of  the  sweet 

19 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  21 

varieties.  They  will  virtually  consume  the  entire 
product  when  it  is  fed  to  them  prior  to  the  maturing 
of  the  crop. 

Corn  grown  as  soiling  food  will  yield  from 
ten  to  thirty  tons  per  acre,  according  as  the  land  is 
poor  or  rich  and  the  season  is  dry  or  moist.  A  good 
average  crop  may  be  placed  at  fifteen  to  twenty  tons 
per  acre. 

Distribution. — Corn  can  be  grown  as  soiling 
food  in  nearly  all  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States,  since,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  about  60 
degrees,  it  will  become  sufficiently  advanced  for  being 
cut  as  soiling  food  in  from  fifty  to  seventy  days  from 
the  time  of  planting.  But  where  it  can  be  allowed 
to  grow  for  a  longer  period,  the  crop  is  relatively 
more  valuable.  Nearly  all  the  tillable  portions  of 
the  United  States  have  marked  adaptation  for  grow- 
ing corn  to  be  fed  in  the  green  form.  The  sections 
least  well  adapted  to  its  growth  are  those  probably 
which  border  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  between  Alaska 
and  California,  because  of  the  low  mean  tempera- 
tures that  prevail  there.  In  nearly  all  the  tillable 
areas  of  Canada,  also,  corn  can  be  grown  in  the 
finest  form  for  summer  feeding  and  in  sections  too 
far  north  to  mature  the  grain. 

Soil. — Corn  is  specially  adapted  to  warm,  deep 
loam  soils  rich  in  humus,  and  that  lie  upon  subsoils 
of  what  may  be  termed  porous  clay.  It  is  a  most 
voracious  feeder  on  decaying  organic  matter,  hence 
when  it  is  to  be  grown,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  soil  well  supplied  with  such  food.  But  it  may  be 
grown  with  more  or  less  success  on  almost  any  kind 
of  land  not  too  low  in  available  plant  food,  not  too 


22  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

strongly  impregnated  with  alkali,  and  not  overmoist 
or  overdry.  It  may  be  made  to  flourish  on  the  stiffest 
clays  when  they  are  sufficiently  pulverized,  and  on 
the  poorest  sands  when  they  have  been  sufficiently 
enriched. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — As  a  fodder  or  grain 
crop,  that  is,  as  a  crop  for  being  fed  in  the  cured 
form,  corn  should  be  grown  whenever  practicable 
as  a  cleaning  crop.  More,  commonly  it  should  be 
planted  after  one  or  more  grain  crops  have  been 
taken  from  the  land,  and  it  should  be  followed  by  a 
grain  crop  in  which  grass  seeds  have  been  sown. 
Frequently  it  should  be  sown  on  an  overturned  grass 
or  clover  sod.  But  when  sown  to  provide  soiling 
food  it  can  with  much  advantage  be  grown  as  a 
"catch"  crop,  that  is  to  say,  as  a  crop  preceded  or 
followed  by  another  crop  grown  on  the  land  the  same 
season,  and  in  some  instances  both  preceded  and 
followed  by  another  crop.  Where  the  seasons  are 
sufficiently  long  it  may  thus  be  grown  with  peculiar 
fitness  after  a  crop  of  winter  rye  is  pastured,  plowed 
under  green,  or  reaped  when  mature ;  after  clover  is 
pastured,  buried  or  reaped ;  after  grain  crops  are  pas- 
tured off,  and  in  some  instances  after  grain  crops 
are  harvested;  after  a  crop  of  early  sown  rape  is 
grazed  down,  and  after  certain  other  soiling  crops 
have  been  removed  from  the  land,  as,  for  instance, 
peas  and  oats. 

It  may  also  be  grown  after  any  kind  of  a  fall 
or  spring  sown  crop  that  has  failed  from  any  cause. 
But  in  areas  in  which  the  seasons  are  quite  short,  it 
may  not  be  possible  to  grow  another  crop  on  the  land 
the  same  season.  The  crops  that  may  with  much 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  2J 

propriety  be  sown  after  soiling  corn  include  winter 
wheat,  winter  rye,  winter  oats,  the  winter  vetch,  the 
sand  vetch,  rape  and  crimson  clover.  Corn  may. 
thus  frequently  be  sown  as  soiling  food  without 
interfering  with  the  growth  of  the  crop  that  would 
ordinarily  be  taken  from  the  land. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  preparing  the  soil, 
the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  seed  bed  moist,  clean 
and  fine.  When  winter  rye  is  plowed  under,  it 
should  not  be  later  than  the  earing  stage,  and  in 
regions  deficient  in  moisture  earlier  than  that,  lest 
through  its  bulkiness  it  should  cause  the  land  to  lie 
too  loosely  upon  itself  and  so  lose  too  much  of  its 
moisture,  or  through  its  woodiness  it  should  fail  to 
decay  soon  enough  to  feed  the  corn  crop.  If  the 
buried  rye  is  rolled  and  harrowed  soon  after  it  has 
been  buried,  the  moisture  in  the  soil  will  be  better 
conserved  and  the  more  quickly  will  the  rye  decay. 
These  remarks  will  apply  equally  to  the  burial  of 
fresh  farmyard  manure  with  much  litter  in  it.  But 
in  time  of  wet  weather,  it  would  not  be  necessary 
thus  to  roll  and  harrow  the  land  so  soon  after  it 
had  been  plowed.  As  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
this  crop  cannot  usually  begin  long  before  the  plant- 
ing of  the  crop,  special  pains  should  be  taken  to 
pulverize  the  soil  and  to  make  it  firm,  that  the  germi- 
nation of  the  young  plants  may  begin  at  once  after 
planting,  and  that  the  subsequent  growth  may  be 
rapid. 

It  should  always  be  the  aim  in  growing  a  soiling 
crop  of  corn  to  produce  a  large  quantity.  It  is  usu- 
ally fed  in  the  immature  form,  hence  quality  in  the 
food  cannot  be  so  much  influenced  by  close  or  wide 


24  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

planting  as  it  is  when  the  corn  crop  is  allowed  to 
mature.  Land,  therefore,  not  sufficiently  fertile  to 
produce  a  maximum  crop  should  be  fertilized  accord- 
ing to  its  needs.  Where  it  can  be  obtained,  farm- 
yard manure  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  effective 
of  fertilizers.  It  may  be  applied  most  freely  in 
climates  not  deficient,  or  not  much  deficient,  in  mois- 
ture. It  feeds  the  corn  crop  better  when  it  has  been 
reduced,  or  fermented,  more  or  less,  before  it  is 
applied.  On  lands  lacking  in  moisture  the  applica- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  farmyard  manure  in  the 
unreduced  form  should  be  avoided,  unless  it  can  be 
applied  some  considerable  time  before  the  planting 
of  the  corn,  otherwise  its  bulkiness  and  slowness  of 
decay  may  harm  the  crop  more  than  it  will  help  it. 

Commercial  fertilizers  may  also  be  applied  in 
addition  to  farmyard  manure  where  the  supply  of 
the  latter  is  limited,  or  alone  in  its  absence.  The 
composition  of  these  fertilizers  and  the  quantity  to 
apply  will  depend  upon  the  needs  of  the  land.  But 
more  commonly  complete  fertilizers  will  be  prefer- 
able, that  is  to  say,  fertilizers  which  contain  a  certain 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Sowing. — Corn  for  soiling  uses  may  be  sown 
broadcast  by  hand  and  covered  with  the  harrow; 
with  the  grain  drill,  all  the  tubes  or  with  only  part 
of  them  in  use ;  or  it  may  be  strewn  by  hand  in  shal- 
low furrows  made  by  the  plow.  Which  of  these 
methods  ought  to  be  adopted  will  depend  chiefly 
upon  such  conditions  as  the  conveniences  at  hand 
for  planting  the  crop  and  upon  the  area  to  be  grown. 

Much  has  been  written  against  the  plan  of  sow- 
ing the  corn  broadcast  by  hand,  also  against  the  plan 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  2$ 

of  sowing  it  with  the  grain  drill  when  all  the  tubes 
are  in  use.  Yet  it  may  be  true  that  a  large  majority 
of  the  farmers  who  grow  corn  for  soiling  persist  in 
growing  it  thus.  And  there  is  probably  some  reason 
for  such  persistence.  It  is  very  convenient  to  sow 
corn  in  this  way.  The  stalks,  because  of  their  fineness, 
are  more  palatable  than  when  of  stronger  growth, 
and  on  good  soil  much  bulk  of  food  is  obtained.  The 
objections  to  this  method  of  planting  the  crop  are : 
The  lack  of  growth  in  the  corn  in  severely  dry 
weather,  the  encouragement  given  to  the  growth  of 
weeds,  the  larger  amount  of  seed  required  for  plant- 
ing, and  the  less  nutritious  character  of  the  food. 
There  is  some  force  in  all  these  objections.  Notwith- 
standing, in  the  judgment  of  the  author  they  do  not 
prove  conclusively  that  on  well  prepared  soils  corn 
for  soiling  should  not  sometimes  be  grown  thus. 
But  it  should  not  be  so  grown  on  land  that  is 
frequently  lacking  in  moisture,  on  land  that  is  low  in 
fertility  or  on  land  on  which  weed  seeds  lying  on  or 
near  the  surface  have  not  been  well  sprouted  and 
destroyed  before  the  planting  of  the  corn. 

When  corn  for  soiling  is  planted  with  the  grain 
drill,  some  of  the  tubes  only  being  in  use,  there  is 
much  latitude  in  the  precise  methods  practiced 
Sometimes  every  second  tube  is  used.  When  planted 
thus,  the  crop  will  make  more  growth  on  soils  only 
moderately  supplied  with  plant  food,  and  it  will  also 
make  a  better  growth  in  dry  weather.  When  thus 
planted,  of  course,  the  rows  are  too  near  to  admit  of 
horse  cultivation.  Such  cultivation  may  be  given 
with  the  rows  even  nearer  to  each  other  than  thirty 
inches,  but  when  less  distant  than  thirty  inches  it 


26  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

cannot  be  done  with  so  much  freedom  or  ease.  The 
larger  the  variety  of  the  corn,  the  more  distant 
should  be  the  rows,  to  avoid  too  much  shading  from 
the  sunlight ;  hence  there  may  be  instances  when  corn 
grown  for  soiling  should  be  planted  more  than  thirty 
inches  distant. 

Sometimes  such  corn  is  planted  with  the  drill 
in  what  may  be  termed  double  rows,  that  is  to  say, 
in  rows  not  more  than  from  six  to  nine  inches  apart. 
But  the  distance  between  the  pairs  of  double  rows 
should  be  at  least  thirty  inches.  In  planting  corn 
thus,  with  some  grain  drills  at  least,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  duplicate  the  amount  of  driving  that  would 
be  sufficient  to  plant  the  corn  in  single  rows.  Other 
drills,  however,  may  be  made  to  plant  at  least  t\vo 
double  rows  at  one  and  the  same  time.  This  is  done 
by  leaving  open  the  avenues  that  lead  to  the  tubes 
which  do  the  planting  and  closing  all  the  others. 
Corn  planted  thus  will  produce  a  greater  bulk  than 
if  planted  in  single  rows,  yet  this  method  of  planting 
admits  practically  the  same  kind  of  cultivation  that 
would  be  suitable  for  corn  grown  in  single  rows. 

When  the  corn  is  sown  by  hand,  shallow  fur- 
rows are  made  with  the  plow,  the  seed  is  strewn 
thickly  in  these,  according  to  the  desires  of  the 
grower,  and  it  may  be  covered  by  hand  or  by  draw- 
ing a  heavy  harrow  crosswise  over  the  ground.  The 
object  sought  in  planting  the  corn  thus  is  to  secure  a 
thick  stand  of  plants  that  may,  also,  be  cultivated, 
when  a  drill  with  which  to  sow  the  plants  is  not 
obtainable.  But  this  method  of  planting  corn  for 
soiling  should  not  be  attempted  when  a  large  area 
is  to  be  planted. 


Fig.  3.    Giant  Fodder  Corn  for  Soiling 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm, 


28  SOILING    CROPS    AND   THE    SILO. 

The  variety,  or  varieties,  of  corn  to  sow  or  plant 
will  depend  on  conditions  such  as  relate  to  climate 
and  soil.  In  northerly  latitudes  it  may  be  wise  to 
plant  only  the  quick  growing  flint  varieties.  In 
more  southerly  latitudes,  it  may  be  necessary  to  grow 
only  the  slow  growing  dent  varieties.  When  the 
corn  is  to  be  allowed  to  pass  the  earing  stage,  before 
being  fed,  it  may  be  proper  to  choose  some  of  the 
varieties  of  sweet  corn  for  planting.  But  since  soil- 
ing corn  is  usually  fed  before  the  corn  on  the  ear  is 
of  any  considerable  food  value,  it  is  well  to  select 
varieties  with  a  leafy  tendency  of  growth,  since  these 
varieties  will  be  more  relished  by  the  animals  to 
which  the  crop  is  fed. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  will  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  seed  kernels,  or,  in  other  words,  with 
the  variety  of  the  corn,  and  with  the  method  adopted 
in  sowing  the  seed.  Probably  no  method  of  sowing 
calls  for  the  use  of  more  than  three  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre,  or  less  than  one  bushel  per  acre.  There 
would  seem  to  be  no  advantage  derived  from  grow- 
ing corn  for  soiling  purposes  with  the  plants  less  dis- 
tant than  from  three  to  four  inches  in  the  line  of  the 
row,  whatsoever  the  kind  of  cultivation  adopted,  and 
there  may  often  be  good  reasons  for  growing  the 
plants  much  further  apart. 

The  time  for  planting  corn  for  soiling  will 
largely  depend  upon  such  conditions  as  climate,  soil, 
and  the  prospective  needs  of  the  animals  to  which 
the  crop  is  to  be  fed.  Although  in  southern  lati- 
tudes, this  crop  may  be  sown  for  soiling  uses  far  on 
into  midsummer,  it 'should  never  be  planted  in  the 
spring  before  the  soil  has  become  sufficiently  warmed 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  2$ 

to  germinate  the  seed  quickly.  Slowness  of  germi- 
nation is  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  crop,  and 
prolonged  slowness  of  germination  may  be  even, 
fatal  to  it.  It  is  probably  safe  to  conclude  that  the 
season  is  sufficiently  advanced  for  corn  planting 
to  begin  when  apple  blossoms  are  unfolding 
their  beautiful  tints.  It  may  be  desirable  to 
have  the  season  for  feeding  green  corn  as  long  as 
possible.  This  may  be  brought  about  in  one  of  two 
ways :  First,  several  varieties,  which  call  for  varying 
periods  in  which  to  grow,  may  be  planted  at  the  same 
time ;  second,  but  one  variety  may  be  sown  at  inter- 
vals not  closer  to  each  other  than  two  or  three  weeks. 
The  second  of  these  methods  is  preferable,  since  the 
one  variety  selected  may  be  the  most  suitable  to  grow 
in  that  particular  locality.  When  corn  is  grown  as 
soiling  food  for  pigs,  the  aim  should  be  to  secure 
much  grain  rather  than  abundant  growth  of  stem 
and  leaves.  It  should  therefore  be  planted  in  hills 
or  rows,  as  corn  is  usually  grown,  to  provide  ears. 
From  eight  to  twelve  quarts  of  seed  will  suffice  to 
plant  an  acre,  and,  as  previously  intimated,  the  sweet 
varieties  are  to  be  given  the  preference. 

Cultivation. — The  harrow  and  the  cultivator 
are  the  instruments  chiefly  used  in  cultivating  corn 
for  soiling.  Owing  to  the  short  period  required  by 
corn  to  grow,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  use  the  hand 
hoe,  when  a  sufficient  use  has  been  made  of  the  har- 
row. The  corn  ground  should  be  harrowed  a  few 
days  subsequently  to  the  planting  of  the  seed.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  harrow  twice  before  the  plants  appear 
when  the  germination  is  tardy,  but  once  is  usually 
sufficient.  The  crop  should  be  harrowed  at  intervals 


3O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

of  only  a  few  days,  especially  when  the  weather 
is  dry,  even  though  the  land  is  not  foul  with  weed? 
that  it  may  the  more  perfectly  retain  its  moisture. 
The  harrowing  should  cease  when  the  plants  are  sev- 
eral inches  high.  For  reasons  that  will  be  manifest, 
the  harrow  should  be  light,  should  have  a  bro^,d 
sweep,  and  when  in  use  the  teeth  should  usually  be 
set  to  slant  backward.  It  should  also  be  driven 
across  rather  than  along  the  drills,  that  fewer  plants 
may  be  covered  by  the  harrow.  When  the  crop  must 
be  planted  on  foul  land,  more  seed  should  be  used 
than  would  otherwise  be  necessary,  to  allow  for  the 
freer  use  of  the  harrow,  and  consequently  for  the 
loss  of  a  larger  percentage  of  the  plants. 

When  the  cultivator  can  be  used,  its  use  ought 
to  begin  soon  after  the  harrowing  has  ceased,  and  it 
should  continue  at  intervals  until  the  feeding  of  the 
crop  has  virtually  begun.  These  intervals  should 
usually  be  not  more  distant  than,  say,  seven  to  ten 
days.  The  cultivation  should  be  shallow,  that  the 
corn  roots  may  not  be  broken,  and  that  the  moisture 
may  be  better  conserved  than  it  would  be  by  deep 
cultivation.  It  should  come  close  up  to  the  line  of 
the  rows,  that  weed  growth  may  be  checked  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent. 

Feeding. — The  feeding  of  the  corn  may  begin 
as  soon  as  it  is  fully  in  tassel,  or  even  sooner  but  for 
the  loss  in  maximum  development  that  would  ensue, 
and  this  feeding  may  be  continued  until  the  crop  is 
matured.  But  when  fed  to  swine  it  may  be  well  to 
defer  the  feeding  until  the  corn  in  the  ear  is  nearly 
ready  for  table  use.  The  residue  of  the  green 
corn,  if  the  crop  is  not  all  consumed,  may  be  cut  at 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  3! 

the  stage  of  early  maturity,  cured  in  the  shock  and 
fed  with  much  advantage  to  live  stock  subsequently 
through  the  entire  fall  and  winter.  The  farmer  who 
has  a  sufficient  area  of  corn  grown  and  properly  har- 
vested on  the  plan  above  outlined  may  sustain  his 
horses,  cattle  and  sheep  in  excellent  form,  howsoever 
dry  the  autumn  may  be,  or  howsoever  scarce  the 
pasture.  But  it  is  very  important  that  the  crop  shall 
be  harvested  at  the  stage  of  early  maturity,  that  is 
to  say,  when  a  little  under-ripe,  and  that  it  be  nicely 
cured.  Vastly  increased  attention  is  likely  to  be 
given  to  this  feature  of  corn  production  in  the  near 
future,  more  particularly  in  the  northwestern  states, 
so  much  characterized  by  bright  autumn  sunshine. 

When  only  a  small  quantity  of  soiling  food  is 
to  be  fed  daily,  it  may  be  cut  with  a  scythe  and  carted 
to  the  animals,  or  thrown  to  them  over  the  fence 
which  may  separate  the  corn  crop  from  an  adjoining 
pasture.  It  may  be  well  in  some  instances  to  so  plan 
for  feeding  the  corn  when  choosing  the  land  on 
which  it  is  to  be  grown,  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  well 
to  sow  a  strip  of  corn  not  too  wide  beside  the  pasture 
and  along  its  entire  length.  The  saving  in  horse 
labor  that  would  thus  be  effected  when  feeding  the 
crop  would  be  material,  but  to  the  plan  there  is  the 
objection  that  corn  or  other  green  crop  fed  thus 
leads  to  the  dropping  of  an  undue  proportion  of  the 
manure  in  that  part  of  the  pasture  on  which  the 
green  food  has  been  fed.  When  green  corn  is  cut 
for  pigs,  the  corn  hook  will  probably  be  the  best 
implement  to  use. 

When  fed  on  a  large  scale,  the  crop  must  needs 
be  cut  with  the  mower,  according  to  the  needs  of  the 


$2  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

live  stock.  Or,  as  much  may  be  cut  at  one  time  as 
will  suffice  for  two  or  three  days'  feeding,  especially 
when  the  crop  is  well  advanced  in  growth,  as  then  it 
does  not  quickly  wilt  overmuch,  as  it  would  at  an 
earlier  period.  A  moderate  amount  of  wilting 
rather  adds  to  the  relish  of  the  food,  and  it  also  les- 
sens the  danger  from  abundant  feeding  when  the 
green  corn  is  first  given  to  the  animals. 

The  portion  fed  once  or  twice  a  day,  as  the  case 
may  be,  will  have  to  be  drawn  as  frequently  by  horse 
labor,  except  when  it  is  fed  in  racks  in  a  yard,  or  in 
the  stable  mangers.  In  such  instances  enough  may 
be  drawn  at  one  time  to  suffice  for  two  or  even  for 
three  days.  But  too  much  wilting  must  be  guarded 
against,  else  it  will  lessen  the  palatability  of  the  corn. 
Some  form  of  truck  with  a  platform  not  far  from 
the  ground  should  be  used  in  carting  all  kinds  of 
green  food,  in  order  to  lessen  muscular  expenditure 
in  handling  food  with  so  much  water  in  it. 

Where  the  facilities  are  suitable,  there  is  no  way 
by  which  corn  thus  carted  can  be  fed  to  live  stock 
with  a  less  expenditure  of  labor  than  by  feeding  it 
in  a  pasture.  It  is  then  thrown  from  the  dray  or 
wagon  and  is  consumed  without  any  further  labor 
in  handling  the  residue,  or  in  carting  the  drop- 
pings. But  of  course  there  is  oftentimes  con- 
siderable loss  in  the  manure.  When  corn  or  other 
green  food  is  thus  fed,  it  should  be  dumped  off  in 
small  bunches  not  too  near  one  another,  so  the 
animals  may  consume  it  without  being  molested  by 
one  another ;  and  it  should  be  strewn  on  a  different 
portion  of  the  pasture  every  time  it  is  fed,  to  insure 
greater  cleanliness  in  the  feeding,  also  to  secure  a 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  33 

more  even  distribution  of  the  droppings.  The  whole 
pasture  may  be  gone  over  in  this  way.  The  plan 
of  manuring  a  field  thus  is  certainly  very  cheap  and 
efficacious.  The  loss  in  fertility  is  not  great  if  the 
pasture  is  to  be  plowed  the  same  autumn.  If  it  can 
be  arranged  to  have  the  food  thus  spread  on  the 
ground  in  the  absence  of  the  live  stock,  they  will  not 
tread  on  it  so  much  when  turned  in  to  feed  upon  it. 
The  ideal  plan,  when  it  can  be  carried  out,  is  to  have 
two  pastures  and  to  spread  the  food  in  each  alter- 
nately when  the  live  stock  are  in  the  other  pasture. 

When  the  green  corn  is  fed  to  horses  or  cattle 
in  manger  or  racks,  for  manifest  reasons,  it  is  well 
to  have  it  placed  in  these  when  the  animals  are 
absent,  unless  when  they  are  tied  in  stalls.  It  may 
be  most  conveniently  fed  to  sheep  or  swine  in  the 
pastures,  but  there  may  be  occasions  when  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  to  feed  it  in  paddocks,  feed  lots 
or  sheds.  The  feeding  of  sweet  corn  to  swine  may 
be  continued  after  the  crop  has  matured,  but  there 
will  be  loss  in  feeding  the  stalks  unless  the  ears  only 
are  fed  to  the  swine.  The  stalks  may  of  course  be 
cured  and  fed  to  horses  or  cattle. 

3 


CHAPTER  III. 

SORGHUM. 

Sorghum  (Sorghum  vulgare  var.  sac  char  atum) 
has  not  been  very  extensively  grown  as  a  food  for 
live  stock  on  any  part  of  the  continent,  but  for  sev- 
eral years  past  its  great  value  for  such  a  use  has  been 
known  to  a  limited  number  of  farmers  in  various 
centers,  and  in  many  instances  it  has  been  fed  by 
those  farmers  with  very  satisfactory  results.  It  is 
probably  true  that  in  Kansas  more  sorghum  has  been 
grown  to  provide  food  for  live  stock  than  in  any 
other  state  in  the  Union,  but  in  some  of  the  states 
which  border  upon  Kansas,  and  in  others  farther 
south,  more  or  less  sorghum  has  been  grown  for 
stock  within  the  past  few  years.  The  idea  has  gone 
abroad,  and  rightly,  too,  that  sorghum  is  more  deli- 
cate and  slower  in  growth  than  corn.  But  the  gen- 
erally accepted  view  based  on  this  idea,  viz.,  that  to 
grow  sorghum  and  to  keep  it  clean  involves  great 
labor  is  only  partially  correct.  When  sown  on 
ground  well  prepared  and  clean  on  and  near  the 
surface,  it  requires  no  more  labor  subsequent  to  the 
sowing  of  the  seed  to  grow  sorghum  than  to  grow 
corn.  But  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  expend  more 
labor  in  cleaning  and  mellowing  the  seed  bed  for  this 
crop  than  in  preparing  the  same  for  corn.  If  sown 
on  land  foul  with  weed  seeds  within  the  surface 
strata  of  the  soil,  the  weeds  will  start  in  advance 

34 


(30 


Fig.  4.    Early  Amber  Sorghum 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm. 


36  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

of  the  sorghum  and  will  greatly  hinder  its  growth 
unless  much  labor  is  expended  in  fighting  them. 

Sorghum  stools  much  when  it  is  growing, 
hence  the  growth  is  finer  in  character  than  the 
growth  of  corn.  This  of  course  adds  to  its  palata- 
bility  as  a  food  for  stock.  But  its  greatest  value 
as  a  soiling  food  lies,  first,  in  its  power  to  pro- 
duce more  than  one  cutting  per  year  when 
grown  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate;  second,  in  its  ability  to  grow  in  climates 
with  a  limited  rainfall.  The  plants  grow  slowly 
for  a  time,  and  the  development  of  root  growth  is 
limited ;  later  they  take  a  firm  hold  upon  the  soil,  and 
if  the  weather  is  warm  they  rush  forward  with  much 
quickness  and  vigor. 

Sorghum  furnishes  excellent  soiling  food  for 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Like  nearly  all 
green  foods  it  must  be  fed  with  some  caution  to 
horses  when  working.  It  is  becoming  more  com- 
mon to  pasture  sheep  and  swine  upon  sorghum  than 
to  feed  it  to  them  as  a  soiling  food,  owing  to  the 
marked  adaptability  of  this  plant  in  providing  pas- 
ture for  these  animals.  But  when  fed  as  soiling 
food  to  sheep  and  swine  it  is  much  relished,  more 
especially  when  of  tender  and  succulent  growth. 
Its  highest  use  as  a  soiling  food,  however,  is  in  pro- 
viding supplies  for  milch  cows.  They  are  fond  of 
sorghum  and  it  is  good  for  milk  production,  and  a 
given  area  furnishes  relatively  a  large  quantity  of 
food. 

This  plant  has  been  known  to  produce  thirty 
tons  of  green  food  per  acre,  but  the  average  is  under 
rather  than  over  fifteen  tons.  In  many  instances  the 


SORGHUM.  37 

yield  would  be  even  under  ten  tons  per  acre.  Whether 
the  largest  yield  will  be  obtained  from  one  or  two 
cuttings  per  acre  will  be  largely  dependent  on  the 
character  of  the  season,  but  with  sufficient  rainfall 
larger  yields  will  be  obtained  from  two  cuttings,  and 
the  sorghum  from  the  second  cutting  is  of  increased 
fineness  because  of  the  more  abundant  stooling  of 
the  plants  caused  by  the  first  cutting. 

Distribution. — Sorghum  can  be  grown  for  soil- 
ing food  in  all  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States  that  will  produce  Indian  corn.  This  means 
that  it  can  be  grown  successfully  in  every  state  in  the 
Union.  It  can  also  be  grown  in  Canada  over  simi- 
lar areas,  but  in  those  sections  of  Canada  that  mark 
the  northerly  limit  of  corn  production,  it  cannot  be 
grown  as  successfully  as  corn,  because  of  insuffi- 
ciently high  temperatures  in  the  growing  season. 

As  this  plant  is  possessed  of  greater  power  to 
withstand  drouth  than  corn,  it  has  a  higher  adapta- 
tion for  much  of  the  area  lying  west  of  the  tier  of 
states  which  border  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  extent  to  which  sor- 
ghum will  yet  be  grown  for  pasture,  soiling  food 
and  fodder  within  the  area  named,  can  only  be  sur- 
mised. The  conditions  for  its  abundant  growth  in 
much  of  the  said  area  are  not  at  all  unfavorable. 
The  tillable  areas  on  the  continent  which  are  least 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  sorghum  are  those  which 
border  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  and  north 
from  Portland  in  Maine  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
San  Francisco  on  the  other. 

Soil. — The  soils  that  possess  highest  adaptation 
for  corn  also  possess  highest  adaptation  for  sorghum. 


38  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

The  latter  will  grow  best,  therefore,  on  loam 
soils  which  are  well  supplied  with  humus,  and  which 
rest  on  a  subsoil  of  readily  permeable  clay.  All,  or 
nearly  all,  prairie  soils  are  well  suited  to  the  growth 
of  sorghum.  But  the  most  suitable  soils  for  this 
plant  have  more  of  the  sand  element  in  them  than 
those  which  possess  highest  adaptation  for  growing 
corn.  Sorghum  may  also  be  grown  with  success  in 
sandy  soils  underlaid  with  sand  or  gravel  and  so 
lacking  in  moisture  that  corn  could  not  be  success- 
fully grown  upon  them.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
dry  belt  there  are  vast  stretches  of  just  such  land 
which  are  so  lacking  in  moisture  that  sorghum  even 
cannot  be  grown  on  them  in  the  absence  of  irrigation. 
On  certain  other  soils,  as,  for  instance,  clays  of  more 
or  less  fineness  of  texture,  corn  may  be  grown  to  bet- 
ter advantage  than  sorghum.  The  former  will  suc- 
ceed measurably  well  on  clays  so  stiff  as  to  be  quite 
unsuited  to  the  growth  of  sorghum. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — When  sorghum  for 
soiling  is  the  only  crop  grown  on  the  land  during 
the  season  of  growth,  it  may  be  placed  anywhere  in 
the  rotation,  but  preferably  between  two  grain  crops, 
as  then  it  can  be  grown  as  a  cleaning  crop.  Its  effi- 
cacy for  such  a  use  will  depend  much  upon  whether 
it  is  or  is  not  cultivated  while  growing.  In  either 
case,  when  the  land  is  properly  handled  weed  growth 
will  be  diminished.  Sorghum  may  also  be  grown 
as  a  catch  crop,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  corn, 
since  some  varieties  of  corn  may  be  grown  in  a 
shorter  period  than  any  of  the  varieties  of  sorghum. 
When  thus  grown,  however,  it  may  frequently  be 
made  to  follow  such  crops  as  winter  rye,  whether 


SORGHUM.  39 

pastured,  used  for  green  food,  plowed  under,  or  har- 
vested. Sometimes  it  comes  after  clover  is  plowed 
under  or  made  into  hay ;  or  early  sown  rape  that  has 
been  eaten  down.  It  may  also  be  made  to  follow 
certain  early  garden  crops,  and  crops  intended  for 
producing  hay  or  grain,  but  which,  through  lack  of 
promise,  have  been  pastured  off.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  growing  sorghum  as  a  catch  crop  arises  from 
the  want  of  sufficient  time,  between  the  plowing  of 
the  land  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  to  give  ample 
opportunity  for  sprouting  the  weed  seeds  that  lie  on 
or  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Since  corn  may  be 
harrowed  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  sorghum 
without  injury  to  the  plants,  it  has  higher  adaptation 
than  sorghum  for  being  grown  as  a  catch  crop ;  on 
the  other  hand,  sorghum  will  grow  under  conditions 
so  dry  as  to  bring  distress  upon  the  corn  crop. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Land  in  the  best  condition 
for  being  planted  with  sorghum  is  clean  on  and  near 
the  surface,  is  possessed  of  a  fine  tilth  and  is  firm  and 
moist.  When  sorghum  is  the  only  crop  that  is  to 
be  grown  on  the  land  for  the  season,  it  is  usually 
not  difficult  to  so  cultivate  the  soil  that  it  will  be  in 
the  condition  above  described  when  the  crop  is  to  be 
sown.  Usually  it  is  preferable  to  plow  the  land  in 
the  autumn.  There  will  then  be  time  to  sprout  the 
weed  seeds  on  and  near  the  surface,  and  in  turn  to 
destroy  them  before  the  seed  is  planted.  This  can 
be  accomplished  by  the  occasional  use  of  the  harrow, 
and  in  some  instances  it  may  be  necessary  also  to 
use  some  form  of  cultivation.  The  precise  nature 
of  the  implement  to  be  used  will  be  measurably 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  While  the 


4O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

surface  soil  is  thus  being  stirred,  its  power  to  hold 
moisture  is  also  being  increased.  And  even  though 
it  be  necessary  to  defer  sowing  the  seed  for  a  time, 
in  order  to  secure  the  requisites  necessary  to  insure 
a  good  seed  bed,  it  is  better  to  adopt  such  a  course 
than  to  sow  the  seed  on  ill-prepared  land. 

As  previously  intimated,  there  is  usually  not 
time  to  prepare  the  land  thus,  when  sorghum  is 
grown  as  a  catch  crop,  but  some  things  can  be  done 
that  will  tend  to  enhance  the  growth  of  the  crop 
when  it  is  planted.  As  soon  as  the  land  is  plowed 
it  should  be  rolled  and  harrowed  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  moisture.  But  if  there  is  already  sufficient 
moisture  in  the  land,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  the 
roller;  and  if  the  sowing  of  the  seed  can  be  deferred 
for  a  time,  without  too  much  hazard,  something  can 
be  accomplished  by  way  of  cleaning  the  land  on  or 
near  the  surface.  But  more  commonly  it  is  necessary 
to  sow  the  seed  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  made 
ready  for  it. 

While  sorghum  grows  fairly  well  on  land  of 
but  medium  fertility,  since  the  roots  gather  much 
food  in  the  subsoil,  the  yields  are  usually  propor- 
tionate to  the  fertility  in  the  land.  Farmyard 
manure,  when  it  can  be  obtained,  is  one  of  the  best 
and  cheapest  fertilizers  for  sorghum.  Commonly  it 
would  be  applied  before  the  land  is  plowed,  whether 
used  in  the  fresh  or  in  the  reduced  form.  In  the 
fresh  form  it  may,  with  much  propriety,  be  buried  in 
the  autumn,  thus  giving  it  ample  time  to  measurably 
decay  before  the  crop  begins  to  feed  upon  it.  But 
on  leachy  soils  and  in  climates  with  much  rainfall, 
the  aim  should  be  to  apply  the  manure  only  a  short 


SORGHUM.  41 

time  before  the  crop  is  to  be  planted,  lest  its  more 
valuable  ingredients  should  filter  into  the  drainage 
water  and  pass  away  before  they  can  be  appropriated 
by  the  plants  of  the  crop  which  is  to  follow.  It  is 
not  a  good  plan  to  top-dress  the  seed  bed  which  is 
to  receive  sorghum  seed  with  any  kind  of  farmyard 
manure,  because  of  the  prevalence  of  weed  seeds  in 
the  same.  But  it  may  in  some  instances  serve  an 
excellent  purpose,  to  top-dress  sandy  soils  with 
farmyard  manure  in  the  autumn,  and  then  to  bury 
the  manure  that  has  been  so  applied  in  the  early 
spring.  The  surface  soil  will  thus  be  so  far  enriched 
as  to  promote  a  rapid  growth. 

Commercial  fertilizers  may  be  applied  alone,  or 
in  conjunction  with  farmyard  manure.  Complete 
fertilizers  are  more  commonly  used,  but  the  exact 
nature  of  the  product  to  be  applied  will  depend  upon 
the  extent  to  which  the  soil  is  wanting  in  the  various 
leading  elements  of  fertility.  The  aim  should  be  to 
apply  these  fertilizers  so  that  they  will  stimulate  vig- 
orous growth  in  the  plants  when  they  are  young, 
since,  if  they  have  thus  been  made  strong  while  yet 
young,  their  power  to  extract  plant  food  from  the 
soil  at  a  later  period  of  development  will  be  greatly 
enhanced.  The  fertilizer  should  therefore  be  sown 
when  practicable  at  the  same  time  the  seed  is  sown, 
and  in  near  proximity  to  the  same,  but  not  too  close 
to  it  when  the  fertilizer  is  possessed  of  any  ingre- 
dients of  a  caustic  nature. 

For  several  years  the  question  of  fertilizers  for 
sorghum  is  not  likely  to  give  much  concern  to  the 
growers  of  the  same  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river.  It  is  very  different,  however,  with  the 


42  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

farmers  living  on  the  more  hungry  soils  of  the  lower 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  states. 

Sowing. — One  of  the  following  methods  of 
sowing  sorghum  is  usually  adopted :  First,  it  is  sown 
broadcast  by  hand  and  covered  with  the  harrow; 
second,  by  the  grain  drill,  all  the  tubes  or  only  every 
alternate  tube  being  used ;  third,  by  hand  in  shallow 
furrows  marked  out  by  the  plow ;  or,  fourth,  by  the 
grain  drill  in  single  or  double  rows  with  a  space  of 
thirty  to  forty-two  inches  between  them.  The  first 
method  is  usually  practiced  by  those  who  have  no 
grain  drill,  since  it  is  convenient  to  sow  the  seed  thus. 
The  chief  objections  to  sowing  sorghum  by  this  plan 
are,  first,  the  seed  is  imperfectly  covered  and  at  vary- 
ing depths,  hence  it  grows  up  more  or  less  unevenly ; 
second,  some  of  the  seed  in  dry  weather  fails  to 
germinate ;  third,  when  sown  thus  it  cannot  be  culti- 
vated, which,  under  very  dry  conditions,  may  lead 
to  failure  in  the  crop.  The  second  method  buries 
the  seed  at  a  uniform  depth,  hence  the  germination 
of  the  seed  may  be  expected  to  be  more  uniform,  but 
the  objections  from  smothering  through  the  presence 
of  weeds  and  through  injury  from  dry  weather  are 
much  the  same  as  when  the  seed  is  sown  by  hand, 
though  less  in  degree. 

The  use  of  only  every  other  drill  tube  when  sow- 
ing the  seed  insures  a  more  bulky  growth  of  the  crop, 
but  at  the  expense  of  the  fine  character  of  the  growth. 
The  third  method  is  only  resorted  to  when  a  small 
quantity  is  to  be  sown  in  the  absence  of  a  grain  drill, 
and  when  at  the  same  time  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate 
the  young  crop.  The  fourth  method  is  followed 
when  a  large  area  is  to  be  grown,  and  when  it  is 


44  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

desirable  to  cultivate  the  crop.  In  sowing  the  seed 
almost  any  make  of  drill  may  be  used.  In  sowing 
double  rows  two  adjoining  tubes  are  active,  while 
the  tubes  that  occupy  the  space  between  the  double 
rows  are  inactive,  that  is  to  say,  not  in  use.  The 
space  between  the  rows  that  form  the  double  row  is 
thus  from  six  to  eight  or  nine  inches  wide,  according 
to  the  make  or  pattern  of  the  drill,  and  the  distance 
between  the  double  rows  will  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  the  variety  of  the  sorghum  to  be 
grown  and  the  character  of  growth  expected  from 
it.  The  richer  the  soil,  the  more  distant  the  rows 
from  one  another ;  the  larger  the  variety  of  the  sor- 
ghum the  coarser  will  be  the  character  of  the  growth 
produced.  The  chief  objects  sought  in  planting  the 
double  in  preference  to  the  single  row  are :  To  secure 
an  increased  yield  in  weight  of  fodder,  and  to  secure 
a  crop  fine  in  character.  One  objection  to  the  sys- 
tem is  found  in  the  shelter  that  is  thus  provided  for 
weeds  between  the  two  lines  of  the  double  row. 

Prominent  among  the  varieties  of  sorghum  that 
are  more  commonly  grown  are  the  Early  Amber, 
sometimes  called  the  Minnesota  Amber,  the  Early 
Orange,  Folger's  Early  and  Link's  Hybrid.  The 
first  named  has  marked  adaptation  for  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  second  and  third  are  much  grown  in 
the  states  of  the  middle  west,  and  the  fourth  is  one 
among  several  varieties  grown  in  the  south. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  will  depend 
upon  climatic  conditions  and  upon  the  mode  of  plant- 
ing. It  is  manifest  the  system,  of  sowing  broadcast 
will  call  for  much  more  seed  than  the  system  of 
planting  sorghum  in  single  or  double  rows.  When 


SORGHUM.  45 

the  seed  is  broadcasted  by  hand  or  when  it  is  sown 
with  the  grain  drill, — all  the  tubes  in  use, — one 
bushel  of  seed  per  acre  will  usually  be  sufficient, 
although  some  growers  advocate  sowing  as  much  as 
two  bushels  per  acre.  Where  the  moisture  is  likely 
to  prove  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  growing 
crop,  results  more  satisfactory  will  be  obtained  by 
reducing  the  quantity  of  the  seed  to  be  sown.  When 
grown  in  single  rows  with  a  wide  space  between 
them,  a  few  quarts  of  seed  will  suffice  per  acre,  but 
in  growing  this  crop  for  soiling  uses  it  will,  usually, 
be  found  advantageous  to  sow  not  less  than  a  peck 
of  seed  per  acre,  whatsoever  the  method  of  growing 
the  crop  that  may  be  adopted. 

The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  will,  of  course, 
vary  with  such  conditions  as  relate  to  climate  and 
rotation.  It  is  a  mistake  to  plant  before  warm  and 
settled  weather  has  set  in.  When  sown  too  early 
the  germination  of  the  seed  will  be  imperfect,  the 
early  growth  will  be  sickly  in  character,  and  the 
weeds  will  push  on  ahead  of  the  sorghum,  so  when 
the  crop  starts  to  grow  no  conditions,  howsoever 
favorable,  can  make  it  a  success.  A  crop  grown 
under  similar  conditions,  except  that  it  is  not  sown 
until  the  weather  is  sufficiently  warm,  will  prove 
much  more  satisfactory  than  the  former.  The  best 
rule  to  follow,  perhaps,  is  that  which  defers  sowing 
the  sorghum  seed  until  the  corn  crop  has  been 
planted. 

Of  course  sorghum  may  be  sown  for  soiling  at 
any  subsequent  time,  so  long  as  there  is  time  enough 
to  secure  sufficient  growth  to  pay  for  the  young  crop. 
It  must,  of  course,  be  harvested  before  the  autumn 


46  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

frosts  arrive.  While  green  and  succulent  it  is  easily 
injured  by  frost. 

Cultivation. — Harrowing  sorghum  is  the  only 
mode  of  cultivation  that  may  be  resorted  to  when 
it  is  sown  on  the  broadcast  plan,  either  by  hand  or 
with  the  grain  drill.  It  cannot  be  harrowed  nearly 
so  much  as  corn,  owing  to  the  much  greater  delicacy 
of  the  young  plants,  and  when  planted  with  the 
grain  drill  the  harrow  may  be  more  effectively  used 
than  when  the  seed  has  been  broadcasted,  for  then 
the  plants  do  not  uproot  so  easily.  Sorghum  sown 
with  the  grain  drill  may,  usually,  be  harrowed  with 
benefit  to  the  crop  just  when  the  first  blades  are 
pushing  through  the  soil.  The  harrow  used  should 
be  light,  of  a  broad  sweep  and  the  teeth  of  the  same 
should  be  slanted  backward  to  the  greatest  possible 
extent  when  the  work  is  being  done.  No  little  dif- 
ference of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the  degree  of  the 
benefit  arising  from  harrowing  the  crop  after  it  has 
got  well  through  the  soil.  It  is  at  least  question- 
able if  sorghum  should  be  harrowed  after  the  plants 
appear  until  they  get  up  several  inches  above  the 
surface.  Before  that  period  of  advancement  they 
are  easily  uprooted  and  also  easily  buried  in  the 
process  of  harrowing.  The  quick  growth  of  sor- 
ghum will  certainly  be  promoted  by  harrowing,  but 
the  crop  should  not  be  harrowed  to  the  extent  of 
making  the  plants  too  few  to  produce  a  maximum 
of  forage.  Where  it  is  intended  to  use  the  harrow 
freely  on  the  young  plants,  enough  additional  seed 
should  be  sown  to  allow  for  the  expected  loss. 

In  sections  deficient  in  moisture,  it  is  more  nec- 
essary to  use  the  harrow  freely  than  in  those  opposite 


SORGHUM.  47 

in  character.  When  the  crop  is  threatened  with 
serious  injury  from  the  presence  of  young  weeds,  it 
ought  to  be  harrowed.  More  sorghum  will  be 
secured,  and  that  of  a  superior  quality,  from  a  piece 
of  land  in  which  the  plants  have  been  thinned  over- 
much by  harrowing  than  from  a  similar  piece  of 
equal  area  in  which  the  weeds  have  obtained  the 
ascendency  over  the  sorghum. 

When  practicable,  the  cultivation  of  sorghum 
sown  in  rows  sufficiently  distant  should  be  early 
begun,  it  should  be  frequent,  and  may  be  continued 
almost  up  to  the  time  of  the  last  cutting  of  the  crop 
for  the  season,  and  it  ought  to  be  shallow  rather  than 
deep.  After  the  first  cutting  of  the  crop,  the  benefit 
from  prompt  subsequent  cultivation  will  be 
abundantly  apparant.  Some  hand  hoeing  may  be 
given  betimes  with  profit  in  the  line  of  the  row,  but 
when  the  land  has  been  well  prepared  such  work  is 
seldom  necessary. 

Feeding. — There  is  no  cast-iron  rule  as  to  when 
the  cutting  of  the  crop  should  begin.  It  should  not 
be  delayed,  however,  until  the  seed  heads  are  formed 
when  a  second  cutting  is  intended.  If  the  sorghum 
is  cut  after  that  period  the  yield  from  the  second 
growth  will  be  much  reduced.  When  cut  too  early 
the  yield  from  the  first  cutting  is  unduly  small. 
Usually  the  cutting  of  the  first  growth  does 
not  begin  until  the  crop  is  from  two  to  three 
feet  high,  but  it  may  begin  earlier  if  necessary,  and 
the  cutting  of  the  second  growth  may  begin  as  soon 
as  the  seed  heads  appear,  or  even  earlier.  Since, 
under  normal  conditions,  the  crop  is  cut  and  fed 
from  day  to  day  according  to  the  needs  of  the  live 


48  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

stock,  the  second  growth  will  frequently  be  ready  to 
cut  by  the  time  the  first  growth  is  all  consumed, 
providing  the  consumption  of  the  first  growth  has 
covered  a  period  sufficiently  long.  This  period  will 
vary,  but  it  should  not  be  less  than  three  to  four 
weeks.  Sorghum,  therefore,  from  a  single  sowing, 
may  be  made  to  provide  soiling  food  in  the  green 
form  for  live  stock  from  six  to  eight  weeks.  But 
during  periods  of  severe  drouth,  the  second  cutting 
may  not  materialize,  or  it  may,  at  least,  be  disap- 
pointing in  its  growth.  When  but  one  cutting  is 
made  the  harvesting  may  begin  as  soon  as  the  seed 
heads  are  fully  formed,  and  may  be  continued  until 
the  crop  is  fully  matured.  But  when  the  sorghum 
is  to  be  fed  to  sheep  or  swine  in  the  green  form,  they 
will  consume  it  with  greater  relish  when  cut  at  an 
early  stage  of  growth.  The  food  is  then  fine  in 
character,  juicy,  tender  and  contains  but  little  fiber. 
When  thus  fed  one  or  two  more  cuttings  can  be 
obtained  in  one  season  because  of  the  earlier  stage 
of  development  at  which  the  sorghum  is  cut.  But  it 
is  more  common  to  pasture  sheep  and  swine  on 
young  sorghum  than  to  feed  it  to  them  as  soil- 
ing food. 

When  but  a  small  quantity  is  wanted  per  day, 
the  scythe  is  commonly  used  in  cutting  the  sorghum. 
When  grown  along  and  beside  a  pasture  fence, 
of  necessity  the  scythe  must  be  used  in  cutting 
the  food  for  convenience  in  feeding  the  same. 
When  a  large  amount  is  required  the  mower  must 
be  used.  As  the  plants  do  not  shrivel  readily, 
enough  may  be  mown  at  one  time  to  last  for  two  or 
three  days,  more  especially  when  the  green  food  is 


SORGHUM.  49 

to  be  fed  to  the  cattle  and  horses.  As  in  feeding 
corn,  it  may  be  fed  within  a  pasture,  in  racks,  feed 
lots,  or  mangers  in  the  stables. 

Some  care  is  necessary,  especially  when  the 
feeding  begins  to  limit  the  amount  fed,  or  to  feed  it 
in  a  somewhat  wilted  condition,  lest  it  should  cause 
hoven  or  bloat.  Inattention  at  this  point  may  lead 
to  serious  loss,  but  green  sorghum  is  less  liable  to 
produce  hoven  than  clover  or  alfalfa.  The  amount 
that  may  be  given  daily  need  not  be  limited  except 
by  the  needs  of  the  live  stock,  unless  for  a  few  days 
at  the  first.  Howrever,  more  satisfactory  results  will 
follow  when  some  other  food  less  succulent  is  given. 
Sorghum  may  also  be  fed  to  live  stock  with  great 
advantage  in  the  matured  form,  on  what  may  be 
termed  the  soiling  plan  of  feeding.  When  thus  fed 
it  is  common  to  cut  the  crop  with  the  binder  or 
mower,  but  more  commonly  with  the  latter.  The 
sorghum  is  then  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  for  sev- 
eral days  before  being  gathered  together,  especially 
when  it  is  not  well  matured,  or  when  the  weather  is 
damp.  It  does  not  take  injury  from  rain  as  corn 
would  when  thus  exposed.  The  outside  of  the  stem 
is  hard,  hence  the  rain  does  not  penetrate  it.  But 
some  injury  is  done  through  the  soil  that  adheres  to 
it.  It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  sorghum  exposed 
thus  and  lying  on  the  ground  for  a  period  of  two  or 
three  weeks  in  rainy  weather  has  been  eaten  subse- 
quently and  with  a  relish  by  live  stock.  It  is  drawn 
into  windrows,  by  using  a  strong  rake,  and  is  then 
put  into  large  "cocks"  or  heaps  by  hand. 

When  the  crop  is  very  heavy,  it  may  be  bunched 
without  first  having  been  raked.  In  such  cocks 

4 


5O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

sorghum  will  not  ferment  or  mold  as  corn 
hence  as  much  as  500  pounds,  or  more  than  that, 
may  be  put  in  one  heap  without  any  danger  of  loss 
from  heating.  From  these  the  sorghum  may  be 
drawn  and  fed  to  live  stock  in  the  pastures,  in  the 
sheds  or  stables,  as  desired.  This  food  is  greatly 
relished  by  the  animals  at  that  season  of  the  year, 
and  since  it  is  fed  with  but  little  handling  it  is  con- 
sidered an  economical  food.  Feeding  from  such  a 
source  may  be  continued  until  the  closing  in  of  the 
winter.  When  sorghum  is  to  be  fed  thus,  it  is  com- 
monly grown  like  grain,  that  it  may  be  fine  enough 
to  be  handled  with  the  fork  without  difficulty.  No 
other  kind  of  food  that  can  be  grown  comes  in  more 
opportunely  for  feeding  at  that  season  than  sorghum. 
In  the  states  of  the  middle  west  and  in  those  of  the 
south,  where  winter  delays  its  coming,  this  method 
of  feeding  sorghum  is  peculiarly  advantageous. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS. 

The  chief  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  are 
Kaffir  corn,  Milo  maize,  dhourra  and  Jerusalem 
corn.  Teosinte,  properly  speaking,  is  not  a  sorghum, 
but  it  will  be  included  in  the  discussion  of  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  because  of  the  similarity  in  the 
methods  of  cultivation  and  in  the  uses  for  which  it 
is  grown.  Of  these  plants,  Kaffir  corn  is  the  best 
known  and  the  most  extensively  cultivated,  but  it 
would  be  premature  to  reach  the  conclusion  that 
because  of  this  it  is  the  most  valuable.  It  has  been 
cultivated  apparently  in  the  United  States  for  a 
longer  period  than  the  other  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums. Milo  maize  in  some  of  its  varieties  is  likely 
to  make  a  strong  competitor  to  Kaffir  corn. 

These  plants  are  all  of  comparatively  recent 
introduction  into  the  United  States.  At  least  no 
one  of  them  has  been  extensively  grown  in  the  same 
until  within  a  comparatively  recent  period.  They 
are  but  little  known,,  therefore,  to  any  considerable 
number  of  the  agriculturists  of  the  country.  It  will 
be  in  order,  therefore,  to  give  a  short  description  of 
each  and  also  to  make  some  reference  to  the  distinc- 
tive peculiarities  of  growth. 

Kaffir  corn  (Sorghum  vulgare)  is  a  sturdy 
growing  plant.  The  stem  is  thick  at  the  base,  taper- 
ing toward  the  top  and  usually  grows  to  the  hight  of 

5' 


52  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

about  five  to  six  feet.  Since  it  does  not  grow  so 
tall  as  many  of  the  varieties  of  corn,  nor  so  tall  as 
sorghum,  or  Milo  maize,  it  is  more  easily  handled 
than  these  in  the  sheaf  when  fully  grown.  The 
leaves  are  long  and  large  and  fairly  numerous,  but 
not  markedly  abundant.  It  throws  up  a  single  spike 
which  bears  a  head  in  which  the  seeds  are  closely 
packed.  The  head  is  fully  six  inches  long  and  three 
inches  broad  and  stands  erect,  or  nearly  so.  Large 
yields  of  seed  are  obtained,  and  when  ground  its 
feeding  value  for  the  various  classes  of  farm  stock 
is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  corn.  The  plants  are  but 
little  liable  to  break  down  with  the  wind.  They 
have  extraordinary  power  to  grow  under  dry  condi- 
tions and  to  retain  succulence  in  the  leaves  and  stems 
even  after  the  seed  has  matured.  The  leading 
varieties  of  Kaffir  corn  are  the  red  and  the  white. 
The  red  matures  earlier  than  the  white,  but  the  latter 
would  seem  to  produce  more  seed.  The  red  variety 
is  better  adapted  than  the  white  to  states  north  from 
where  the  most  suitable  conditions  exist  for  growing 
Kaffir  corn. 

Milo  maize  (Sorghum  vulgare  or  Andropogon 
sorghum,  var. )  is  a  vigorous  growing  plant.  In  the 
tests  made  at  the  Minnesota  university  experiment 
station  in  1897-98,  the  plants  attained  an  average 
night  of  about  eight  feet.  The  leaves  are  large,  and 
from  the  center  of  the  stalk  upward  they  are  quite 
numerous.  Each  stalk  when  matured  is  surmounted 
by  a  large  head  which  bears  seed  profusely.  This 
head  has  an  average  length  of  about  six  inches  and 
an  average  diameter  of  about  four  inches.  When 
the  head  first  appears  it  is  erect,  but  when  matured 


54  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

it  hangs  downward.  It  is  somewhat  more  open 
than  the  seed  head  which  is  produced  in  Kaffir  corn. 

There  are  two  leading  varieties  of  Milo  maize, 
named  respectively  the  yellow  and  the  white.  The 
former  is  the  earlier  of  the  two.  In  1897  some  of 
the  seed  of  the  yellow  variety  matured  at  the  Minne- 
sota university  experiment  station,  but  not  all  of  it. 
In  1898,  one  plat  of  the  same  variety  was  pastured 
with  sheep.  About  the  same  results  were  obtained 
as  from  pasturing  early  amber  sorghum.  Another 
plat  was  grown  in  rows  three  feet  distant  from  one 
another  and  harvested  like  corn.  It  was  found  that 
the  numerous  leaves  around  the  top  of  the  plants 
added  to  the  difficulty  in  shocking  and  in  preserving 
the  fodder  from  injury  by  rain.  When  fed  to  cattle 
and  sheep  they  ate  it  with  more  relish  than  they  mani- 
fested for  any  of  the  other  non-saccharine  sorghums. 

Dhourra  (Andropogon  sorghum,  Brot.)  is  of  at 
least  four  varieties,  the  brown,  the  black,  the  red  and 
the  white.  Of  these,  the  brown  is  more  commonly 
grown.  It  is  so  named,  doubtless,  from  the  color 
of  the  seeds  when  ripe.  It  grows  less  rapidly  than 
Milo  maize.  At  the  Minnesota  university  experi- 
ment station  in  1897,  tne  plants  grew  from  six  to 
eight  feet  in  hight.  The  large  and  long  leaves  are 
not  numerous.  The  seed  heads  are  thick  and  heavy 
and  oval  shaped.  They  hang  on  a  stem,  which, 
though  erect  at  first,  assumes  a  shape  resembling  the 
neck  of  a  goose  as  the  maturing  process  goes  on.  It 
is  a  rather  slow  grower  and  matures  seed  about  the 
same  time  as  Kaffir  corn. 

Jerusalem  corn  (Andropogon  sorghum,  Brot.") 
bears  some  resemblance  to  dhourra  in  appearance 


(55) 


Pig.  7.    Yellow  flllo  Haize 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm. 


56  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

and  also  in  its  habits  of  growth.  It  is  even 
stronger  in  the  stem  than  dhourra  and  has  still  less 
of  forage.  The  seed  heads  are  large,  and  like  those 
of  dhourra,  hang  on  hook-shaped  stems.  At  the 
Minnesota  university  experiment  station  in  1897 
the  plants  grew  to  the  hight  of  about  five  feet.  Like 
those  of  dhourra  they  grew  more  slowly  than  Milo 
maize  or  Early  Amber  sorghum.  Jerusalem  corn 
should  be  grown  rather  for  the  seed  than  for  the 
fodder.  It  is  not  probable  that  either  dhourra  or 
Jerusalem  corn  will  be  extensively  grown  for  soiling 
food  where  Milo  maize  and  sorghum  can  be  grown. 
Teosinte  (Reana  luxurians)  is  distinguished 
from  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  in  the  less  erect 
character  of  the  growth,  in  the  extent  to  which  the 
plants  sucker,  in  the  greater  fineness  and  abundance 
of  the  long  and  slender  leaves,  and  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  seed  is  produced.  The  seed  grows  on 
small  ears  and  the  ears  grow  numerously  around 
every  top  joint  of  the  seed  stem.  They  are  enclosed 
in  a  husk.  There  is  probably  no  fodder  plant  that 
tillers  so  much  as  teosinte.  As  many  as  sixty 
suckers  have  been  produced  by  a  single  plant.  In 
the  experiments  conducted  at  the  Minnesota  univer- 
sity experiment  station  in  1898,  it  was  found  that 
when  planted  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  thinned 
to  fifteen  inches  in  the  row,  each  plant  produced  from 
five  to  twenty-five  stalks.  Those  thinned  to  from 
two  to  three  inches  in  the  row  produced  from  two  to 
twelve  stalks.  The  latter  were  also  much  more 
upright  in  their  growth.  Seed  heads  were  not  even 
formed  on  any  of  the  plants.  Teosinte  would  make 
an  excellent  pasture  and  soiling  plant  for  the  south 


<S7) 


Fig.  8.    Brown  Dhourra 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm. 


58  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

but  for  the  low  palatability  which  it  possesses.  It 
is  thought  a  greater  weight  of  food  can  be  obtained 
from  this  plant  than  from  any  of  the  sorghums  or 
millets  that  have  been  tried  in  the  United  States. 

These  plants  can  all  be  made  to  furnish  pasture, 
soiling  food,  hay  and  fodder  for  winter  feeding,  and 
when  the  season  is  long  enough  to  mature  seed,  they 
can  all  be  made  to  furnish  large  yields  of  grain.  It 
is  yet  premature  to  say  much  about  the  precise  rela- 
tive adaptation  of  these  plants  for  feeding  uses.  It 
would  probably  be  correct,  however,  to  state  that 
Milo  maize  and  teosinte  are  the  most  promising 
pasture  and  soiling  plants,  that  Kaffir  corn  is  the 
most  promising  fodder  plant,  especially  for  dry 
areas,  and  that  dhourra  and  Jerusalem  corn  are  the 
largest  producers  of  seed.  The  seeds  of  all  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  are  excellent  for  all  kinds  of 
farm  animals,  but  unless  when  given  to  fowls  they 
ought  to  be  ground  before  being  fed. 

The  yields  of  fodder  will  of  course  vary  greatly 
with  the  variations  in  soils  and  in  the  length  of  the 
seasons.  They  will  run  from  a  few  to  many  tons. 
The  largest  yields  of  soiling  food  are  obtained  from 
teosinte  and  Milo  maize. 

Distribution. — The  non-saccharine  sorghums 
are  without  exception  less  hardy  than  the  common 
varieties  of  corn.  Nor  are  they  so  hardy  as  sor- 
ghum is,  at  least  in  some  of  its  varieties.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  these  plants  are  not  likely  to  succeed 
far  northward.  Onl}r  in  the  Mississippi  basin  and 
in  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys,  with  their  hot  mid- 
summer temperatures,  are  they  likely  to  succeed  in 
the  near  future  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel  of  north 


60  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

latitude,  that  is  to  say,  north  of  the  parallel  which 
runs  through  Springfield,  111. ;  and  even  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi basin  they  can  be  grown  with  greater 
success  south  of  that  line  rather  than  north  of 
the  same.  In  the  trials  made  with  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  at  the  Minnesota  university 
experiment  farm,  all  the  varieties  tested  pro- 
duced an  abundant  growth  of  green  food,  as  will 
be  evident  from  what  has  previously  been  said  in 
regard  to  them,  but  only  in  a  few  instances  did  any 
of  the  varieties  mature  seed.  These  plants  are  also 
more  tender  than  corn  and  sorghum  in  the  early 
stages  of  their  growth,  and  with  the  exception  of 
Milo  maize  they  would  seem  to  be  less  palatable  than 
corn  and  sorghum.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  only 
in  localities  not  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  corn 
and  sorghum  that  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  are 
likely  to  supersede  them.  It  is  not  probable,  there- 
fore, that  they  will  supersede  corn  and  sorghum 
north  from  the  fortieth  parallel  of  latitude,  at  least 
not  in  the  near  future.  Of  course  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  much  further  to  the  north  the  line  of  suc- 
cessful growth  may  be"  pushed  when  these  plants 
become  better  acclimatized. 

The  greater  power  which  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  have  to  grow  under  conditions  too  dry  for 
the  successful  growth  of  corn,  furnishes  a  sufficient 
reason  for  growing  them  under  such  conditions.  A 
second  reason  is  found  in  the  greater  yields  of  grain 
which  they  furnish  in  many  localities  in  the  south. 
A  third  reason  arises  from  the  power  which  they 
have  to  grow  again  when  cut.  This  property,  in 
conjunction  with  the  abundance  of  the  food  which 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHtTMS.  6l 

they  produce,  gives  them  a  high  place  as  soiling 
foods  or  even  as  pasture  plants  where  they  can  be 
successfully  grown. 

The  highest  adaptation  for  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  is  found  at  present  west  from  the  Missis- 
sippi river  and  south  from  Nebraska,  with  Kansas, 
Arkansas  and  Oklahoma  as  its  center.  But  both 
east  and  west  from  these  states  they  can  be  grown 
profitably  over  considerable  areas.  Teosinte  has 
higher  adaptation  to  the  states  which  mark  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  Republic,  but  it  may  be  grown 
successfully  as  soiling  food  in  the  states  immediately 
north  of  these. 

Soil. — All  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  would 
seem  to  have  greater  power  than  corn  to  gather  plant 
food  in  a  dry  soil.  They  are  therefore  relatively 
better  adapted  than  corn  to  a  sandy  soil.  But  it 
would  not  be  correct  to  say  that  they  have  greater 
power  to  grow  in  a  sandy  soil  than  in  a  sandy  loam, 
nor  in  a  dry  climate  than  in  one  possessed  of  con- 
siderable moisture.  They  would  seem  also  to  have 
greater  power  than  corn  to  gather  food  in  soils  low 
in  humus,  and  yet  where  humus  is  present  in  consid- 
erable quantities  they  grow  more  vigorously  than 
where  it  is  present  only  in  meager  supply.  All  these 
plants  gather  much  of  their  food  in  the  subsoil, 
hence  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  has  an  influence  on 
their  growth  not  very  much  less  than  the  surface 
soil.  Subsoils,  therefore,  that  contain  a  layer  of 
hardpan  which  is  near  the  surface  are  quite  unsuited 
to  the  growth  of  these  plants. 

The  most  suitable  soils  are  those  sandy  in  tex- 
ture, possessed  of  a  considerable  supply  of  humus 


62  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

and  underlaid  with  clay  that  is  open  in  character 
rather  than  retentive.  But  some  of  the  non-saccha- 
rine sorghums  will  produce  fairly  good  crops  when 
both  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  sandy.  Notably  is  this 
true  of  Kaffir  corn.  The  sandy  soils  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  valleys  have  high  adaptation  for  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
much  of  the  land  in  the  southern  and  south- 
western states. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  non-saccharine 
sorghums  consume  considerable  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen while  making  their  growth,  hence  the  aim  should 
be  to  grow  them  after  nitrogen-gathering  crops. 
Since  they  will  grow  better  on  soils  possessed  of  a 
fair  quantity  of  humus,  the  effort  should  be  made  to 
grow  them  as  far  as  can  be  done  where  green 
manures  have  been  buried,  and  within  a  reasonably 
recent  period.  They  can  therefore  with  much  pro- 
priety be  made  to  come  after  crimson  clover,  the 
cowpea,  the  soy  bean,  the  common  vetch,  the  sand 
vetch  and  the  velvet  bean,  even  though  these  crops 
should  be  harvested.  They  should  also  be  grown 
after  such  crops  as  winter  rye  or  rape  plowed  under, 
and  on  overturned  sod  when  the  conditions  may 
admit  of  so  doing.  But  they  may  of  course  be  given 
almost  any  place  in  the  rotation  when  a  due  regard 
is  had  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Cultivation  is  also  usually  given  to  these  crops 
during  the  growing  period,  hence  they  may  be 
classed  as  cleaning  crops.  This  means  that  they 
ought  to  be  followed  by  grain  crops  where  these  can 
be  successfully  grown,  and  grass  seeds  should  be 
sown  on  the  grain  crops.  But  in  some  sections 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  63 

where  these  crops  can  be  successfully  grown,  the 
conditions  are  too  dry  to  admit  of  the  successful 
growth  of  the  grasses  that  are  ordinarily  cultivated. 
In  such  locations  some  winter  crop  could  be  made 
to  follow  these  crops,  since  the  ground  is  in  excellent 
condition  to  receive  it,  and  this  could  be  done 
with  but  little  additional  preparation  of  the  land  by 
way  of  tillage.  These  crops  include  winter  rye,  the 
winter  vetch,  the  sand  vetch,  crimson  clover,  and  in 
some  localities,  alfalfa. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the 
land  for  these  crops  is  much  the  same  as  for  corn. 
The  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  free,  firm  and  moist 
seed  bed  in  sections  low  in  the  amount  of  the  rainfall. 
This  can  best  be  secured  by  plowing  the  land  as  long 
as  possible  previous  to  the  planting  of  the  seed,  and 
by  harrowing  the  surface  of  the  land  thus  plowed  at 
intervals  of  more  or  less  duration.  This  method  of 
managing  land  will  also  be  very  helpful  in  removing 
weeds  from  the  uppermost  section  of  the  soil.  These 
crops  are  planted  later  than  corn  and  even  later  than 
sorghum,  hence  the  season  is  more  prolonged  during 
which  such  treatment  can  be  given  to  the  land. 
Sometimes  in  areas  much  deficient  in  moisture  the 
plan  termed  "listing"  is  adopted  in  growing  some 
of  these  crops,  as  in  growing  corn.  When  this 
method  of  planting  is  followed,  the  soil  is  not  first 
plowed.  Furrows  are  turned  both  ways  from  the 
line  where  the  seed  is  to  be  planted.  The  work  is 
done  by  using  a  double-mold-board  plow,  which 
also  loosens  the  soil  for  some  distance  below  the  line 
of  the  furrow.  In  the  soil  thus  loosened  the 
seed  is  planted.  The  object  sought  is  to  enable 


64  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  plants  to  gather  moisture  under  circumstances 
more  favorable  than  would  result  from  ordinary 
cultivation. 

When  rainfall  is  usually  abundant,  the  aim 
should  be  to  secure  friability  rather  than  impac- 
tion  in  the  surface  soil,  hence  it  would  have  to 
be  more  deeply  stirred  during  the  preparatory 
cleaning  process.  But  when  these  crops  come 
after  a  winter  crop  pastured  off  or  plowed  under, 
there  is  not  much  time  for  thus  attempting  to 
clean  the  land. 

The  fertilizers  suitable  for  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums are  practically  the  same  as  those  suitable  for 
sorghum.  When,  however,  farmyard  manure  is 
applied  under  very  dry  climatic  conditions,  it  must 
not  be  applied  in  large  quantities  lest  the  too  rapid 
escape  of  moisture  near  the  surface  of  the  soil  should 
be  promoted. 

Solving  the  Seed. — The  method  adopted  in 
sowing  the  seed  of  these  crops  will  vary  somewhat 
with  the  kind  of  crop,  with  the  percentage  of  mois- 
ture present  in  the  soil,  with  the  percentage  in  the 
same  that  may  be  expected  in  the  growing  season, 
and  with  the  precise  object  sought  in  growing  the 
different  varieties.  The  more  branching,  for 
instance,  the  habit  of  growth  in  the  plants,  the  more 
distant  from  one  another  do  they  require  to  be 
grown.  The  less  the  degree  of  moisture  the  more 
distant  also  should  they  be  from  one  another.  If 
fineness  of  leaf  and  stem  are  sought,  the  plants  may, 
under  some  conditions  be  sown  broadcast  or 
with  the  grain  drill  on  what  may  be  termed  the 
broadcast  plan.  But  when  a  more  vigorous  and 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  65 

luxurious  growth  is  sought,  then  the  seed  should  be 
planted  in  rows  and  cultivated.  The  latter  sys- 
tem will  be  more  commonly  adopted  where  moisture 
is  deficient. 

When  sown  on  the  broadcast  plan,  the  aim 
should  be  to  plant  with  the  ordinary  grain  drill  all 
the  tubes  being  in  use,  or  only  every  alternate  tube, 
ss  may  be  desired.  When  sown  in  rows  far  enough 
apart  to  admit  of  cultivation  being  given,  the  same 
implement  may  be  used,  but  of  course  various  other 
seed  planters  may  also  be  used.  The  rows  should  be 
from  thirty  to,  say,  forty-two  inches  distant,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  except  in  the  case  of  teosinte, 
which  should,  at  least  when  grown  for  certain  uses, 
have  a  greater  distance  between  the  rows.  But  the 
most  suitable  distance  for  placing  the  rows  when 
growing  these  crops  can  only  be  determined  with 
precision  in  each  locality  by  actual  experience  in 
growing  them. 

The  time  for  planting  will  depend  on  the 
location  and  the  character  of  the  weather.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  plant  the  seeds  before  the 
weather  had  become  steadily  warm.  The  plants  are 
less  able  when  young  to  endure  cold  than  corn  in 
nearly  all  its  varieties,  and  than  sorghum  in  its 
leading  varieties.  At  the  Minnesota  university 
experiment  station  low  temperatures  prevailed  dur- 
ing two  or  three  weeks  subsequent  to  the  planting  of 
these  crops  in  1897.  Corn  in  some  of  its  varieties 
made  a  fairly  good  start  notwithstanding,  and  the 
Early  Amber  variety  of  sorghum  maintained  its  hold 
upon  the  soil.  The  non-saccharine  sorghums  with- 
out exception  only  partially  germinated,  although 
5  . 


66  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  conditions  were  precisely  the  same.  It  was 
necessary  to  plant  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  a 
second  time. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  will  vary  with  the 
climatic  and  soil  conditions  and  with  the  character 
of  the  produce  sought.  The  more  favorable  the 
attendant  conditions,  the  greater  should  be  the 
amount  of  seed  sown  when  growth  fine  in  character 
is  sought,  and  since  the  plants  of  some  of  these  sor- 
ghums produce  more  stalks  and  foliage  than  others, 
it  is  not  necessary  with  the  former  to  plant  so  much 
seed.  Notably  is  this  true  of  teosinte,  and  in  a  less 
degree  of  Milo  maize.  When  planted  in  rows  where 
cultivation  is  to  be  given  other  than  harrowing,  a 
few  pounds  of  seed  will  suffice  for  an  acre.  But 
when  these  crops  are  sown  broadcast,  from  about 
one-half  bushel  to  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre  are  used. 

Cultivation. — When  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums are  planted  with  any  kind  of  drill  or  planter, 
they  may  be  harrowed  without  hazard  to  the  plants 
just  as  they  begin  to  push  up  through  the  ground, 
providing  the  harrow  is  light,  and  that  when  in  use 
a  backward  slant  is  given  to  the  teeth.  Later,  on 
certain  soils,  as  those  quite  loose  in  character,  such 
as  the  humus  soils  of  the  prairie,  some  form  of 
weeder  may  be  used  in  many  instances,  more  espe- 
cially when  the  plants  are  in  rows  distant  from  one 
another.  When  thus  planted,  further  cultivation 
should  be  given  with  more  or  less  frequency.  It 
should  be  sufficient  to  destroy  weeds  and  to  retain 
moisture  in  the  soil  to  the  greatest  extent  practicable. 
Where  moisture  is  usually  more  or  less  wanting,  the 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  j 

crops  should  in  all  instances  be  so  planted  that  they 
may  be  cultivated. 

Feeding. — The  non-saccharine  sorghums  and 
also  teosinte  can  be  cut  for  soiling  food  from  one  to 
several  times  in  one  season.  More  particularly  is 
this  true  of  Milo  maize  and  teosinte.  The  same 
mode  of  cutting,  carting  and  feeding  may  be  adopted 
as  in  handling  sorghum  (see  Page  47).  The  cut- 
ting may  begin  at  any  time  after  sufficient  growth 
has  been  made  to  justify  the  same,  and  the  residue 
of  the  crop  not  wanted  for  green  food  may  be  allowed 
to  mature.  When  sufficiently  matured,  it  can  be 
harvested  and  fed  in  winter.  The  ration  is  improved 
by  feeding  these  crops  in  conjunction  \vith  one  of 
the  legumes,  as,  for  instance,  alfalfa,  vetches,  cow- 
peas  or  soy  beans.  In  many  instances  it  would  be 
possible  to  feed  them  thus,  since  one  or  more  of  the 
legumes  named  can  be  successfully  grown  under 
conditions  suitable  for  the  successful  growth  of  the 
non-saccharine  sorghums. 


CHAPTER  V. 

.  PLANTS    OF    THE     CLOVER    FAMILY. 

Many  kinds  of  clover  are  now  being  grown  in 
this  country.  Some  of  these  are  indigenous,  but 
those  possessed  of  highest  economic  value  have  been 
introduced  from  Europe.  While  each  kind  has 
a  mission  of  usefulness  in  some  section  or  sections 
of  the  continent,  only  a  few  are  suitable  in 
any  marked  degree  for  being  grown  as  soiling  food. 
The  chief  of  these  are  the  common  or  medium  red, 
the  mammoth,  alsike,  crimson  and  alfalfa.  As  the 
methods  of  growing  the  first  four  varieties  are  in 
many  respects  very  similar,  they  will  be  considered 
together.  Alfalfa  will  be  discussed  by  itself,  since 
it  differs  considerably  from  the  other  clovers  men- 
tioned in  habits  of  growth,  and  for  this  reason 
requires  different  management. 

MEDIUM,  MAMMOTH,  ALSIKE  AND  CRIMSON  CLOVER. 

Medium  red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense)  is 
biennial  and  perennial  in  its  habit  of  growth,  accord- 
ing to  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  under  which 
it  is  grown.  It  differs  from  the  other  three  kinds 
in  the  continuity  of  its  growth  throughout  all  or 
nearly  all  of  the  growing  season.  Because  of  this 
peculiarity  it  usually  produces  two  cuttings  of  soiling 

68 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  69 

food  or  hay  in  one  season,  whereas,  the  others  only 
produce  one. 

Mammoth  clover  ( Tri folium  medium)  is  also 
biennial  and  perennial  in  its  habit  of  growth.  It 
differs  from  the  other  clovers  in  the  stronger  char- 
acter of  the  top  and  root  growth  which  characterizes 
it.  The  food  which  it  produces  is  in  consequence 
coarser  in  character,  unless  when  the  plants  are 
grown  very  thickly.  It  is  better  adapted  than  the 
medium  variety  to  soils  that  are  medium  or  less  than 
that  in  fertility.  The  bloom  on  both  the  medium 
and  mammoth  varieties  is  a  beautiful  red.  To  the 
casual  observer  the  only  differences  apparent  in  the 
varieties  while  they  are  growing  are  the  large**  leaf, 
stem  and  head  of  the  mammoth  variety. 

Alsike  clover  (Trifolium  hybridum)  is  a  peren- 
nial plant.  The  period  of  its  duration  is  dependent 
on  such  conditions  as  pertain  to  climate,  soil  and 
treatment.  All  of  the  clovers  under  discussion  will 
live  longer  than  they  otherwise  would  if  prevented 
from  producing  seed.  This  kind  differs  from  all 
the  others  in  the  greater  fineness  of  the  growth  and 
in  the  beautiful  blending  of  white  and  red  tints  in 
the  bloom. 

Crimson  or  Scarlet  clover  (Trifolium  incarna- 
tum)  is  an  annual  plant,  that  is  to  say,  it  completes 
the  cycle  of  its  existence  within  twelve  months  from 
the  date  of  sowing  the  seed,  although  more  com- 
monly it  is  sown  one  year  and  reaped  the  next.  It 
differs  from  the  other  clovers  in  the  shape  of  the 
heads,  which  are  oblong  and  cone-shaped,  in  the 
rich  scarlet  color  of  the  bloom,  and  in  the  more 
hairy  character  of  the  stems,  a  property  which 


/O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

detracts  from  its  feeding  value  when  grown  for 
hay. 

While  clover  of  all  the  species  named  furnishes 
an  excellent  soiling  food,  it  is  not  so  commonly 
grown  for  such  a  use,  for  the  reason,  first,  that  the 
yield  per  acre  is  much  less  than  that  of  many  other 
foods  grown  for  soiling;  second,  that  ordinarily  it 
is  so  easily  cured  for  hay,  and,  third,  that  it  is  so 
easily  handled  when  cured.  The  crimson  clover  is 
ready  to  be  cut  for  soiling  food  before  the  spring 
months  have  gone,  or  some  weeks  before  the  medium, 
which  in  turn  is  ready  in  from  two  to  three  weeks 
in  advance  of  the  mammoth  and  alsike.  The  value 
of  the  crimson  clover  as  a  soiling  food  is  thus  some- 
what lessened  by  the  necessity  for  thus  cutting  and 
feeding  it  when  pasture  is  plentiful  and  succulent. 

Clover  furnishes  excellent  soiling  food  for 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  but  when  fed  to  sheep 
and  swine  it  should  be  cut  at  a  stage  somewhat  earlier 
than  when  fed  to  horses  and  cows,  to  secure  more 
fineness  in  the  growth.  When  fed  to  cattle  and 
sheep  it  should  be  somewhat  restricted  in  quantity 
at  first,  or  else  wilted  before  it  is  fed,  as  the  unre- 
strained feeding  of  fresh  cut  clover  will  sometimes 
cause  bloating,  which  if  not  speedily  relieved  may 
result  fatally. 

The  yield  of  soiling  food  from  all  these  kinds 
of  clover  varies,  of  course,  with  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  grown.  It  will  be  approximately 
correct  to  place  the  average  yield  of  the  first  cutting 
of  medium  clover  for  soiling  uses  at  six  tons  per 
acre,  and  of  the  second  cutting  the  same  season  at 
four  tons.  But  these  yields  can  be  increased  at 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  Jl 

least  50  per  cent  by  judicious  cultivation.  The 
yield  from  each  of  the  other  varieties  is  somewhat 
greater  than  that  obtained  from  the  first  cutting 
of  the  medium  clover,  but  it  is  likewise  some- 
what less  than  that  obtained  from  the  two  cut- 
tings of  the  latter. 

Distribution. — The  clover  zone  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  covers  the  entire  portion  of  the 
arable  land.  But  there  are  stretches  of  country, 
nevertheless,  in  which  clover  of  any  of  the  species 
heretofore  introduced  has  not  been  grown  with  any 
marked  success.  One  of  these  stretches  lies  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  in  what  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  the  semi-arid  belt.  In  this  area  it  perishes  from 
want  of  moisture.  Another  stretch  lies  to  the  north 
of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota,  where  the  low 
winter  temperatures  forbid  the  successful  growth  of 
clover.  In  some  limited  areas  of  these  stretches, 
some  kinds  of  clover  can  be  grown,  but  it  cannot  be 
said  of  the  same  that  they  have  high  adaptation  for 
growing  clover,  nor  can  any  of  the  clovers  now 
under  discussion  be  grown  with  marked  success  in 
the  southern  states,  unless  it  be  the  crimson.  The 
summer  heat  is  not  favorable  to  its  development. 

The  distribution  of  the  medium,  mammoth  and 
alsike  species  of  clover  is  about  the  same,  but  the 
alsike  can  be  growrn  somewhat  farther  north  than  the 
medium  or  the  mammoth,  Above  the  5oth  parallel 
these  clovers  are  not  a  success,  nor  are  they  a  marked 
success  below  the  38th  parallel,  unless  in  very  limited 
areas.  In  much  of  the  country  between  these 
parallels  they  can  be  grown  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, save  in  the  semi-arid  country  beside  the  Rocky 


72  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

mountains  and  east  of  them,  and  in  the  cold  country 
lying  north  and  south  from  the  eastern  half  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  river.  The  highest  adaptation  for 
these  clovers  is  found  south  of  the  5oth  parallel  and 
beside  the  Pacific,  including  also  the  Rocky  mountain 
valleys  when  supplied  with  moisture.  Next  in 
adaptation  comes  what  was  originally  the  forest 
country,  including  certain  prairie  lands,  which, 
although  not  originally  covered  with  timber,  will 
produce  it  readily.  This  belt  lies  between  the  upper 
Mississippi  and  the  New  England  states.  The  New 
England  states  and  the  Maritime  provinces  of 
Canada  will  grow  clover,  but  not  with  that 
luxuriance  which  characterizes  its  growth  in  the 
other  areas  named.  The  greatest  clover-growing 
states  on  the  continent  include  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
eastern  Minnesota,  Iowa,  northern  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  parts  of  Montana  and 
Washington.  It  also  grows  with  superlative 
luxuriance  in  southern  Ontario. 

Crimson  clover  thrives  best  in  a  climate  some- 
what warmer  than  is  suitable  for  the  other  kinds. 
The  highest  adaptation  for  this  plant  is  probably 
found  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states,  southward 
from  New  York  city.  It  is  not  usually  grown  with 
much  success  north  of  the  latitude  of  Columbus,  O., 
that  is  to  say,  north  of  the  4Oth  parallel.  But  for  a 
short  distance  north  of  that  line  it  may  be  grown  in 
good  form  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  for  a  much 
greater  distance  north  of  the  same  latitude  along  the 
Pacific  coast.  Unless  well  protected,  crimson  clover 
cannot  withstand  low  temperatures.  When  the 
medium,  mammoth  and  alsike  clover  grow  at  their 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  73 

best,  crimson  clover  can  seldom,  or  never,  be  grown 
with  equal  success. 

Soils.— All  the  species  of  clover  under  discus- 
sion will  grow  better  in  soils  having  in  them  a  very 
decided  clay  element.  When  sufficiently  supplied 
with  moisture,  these  clovers  will  even  grow 
vigorously  in  clays  of  the  stiffest  texture.  They 
grow  better  in  clay  loams  than  in  sandy  loams,  but  in 
fertile  sands,  such  as  abound  in  many  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  valleys,  they  will  make  a  wonderful 
growth  when  plentifully  supplied  with  water.  The 
volcanic  origin  of  many  of  these  soils,  however,  may 
account  for  their  wonderful  adaptation  to  the 
production  of  clover.  The  humus  soils  of  the  prairie 
will  produce  clover  abundantly  when  there  is  in  them 
enough  clay  to  make  them  measurably  dense,  but 
when  this  element  is  so  far  lacking  as  to  allow  them 
to  lift  with  the  winds,  they  do  not  possess  highest 
adaptation  for  clover.  In  fact,  it  cannot  be  success- 
fully grown  upon  these,  unless  in  exceptional 
instances,  until  the  land  becomes  impacted  by 
cultivation  more  or  less  prolonged.  Soil  adaptation 
in  the  medium  red  and  mammoth  red  clovers  is  about 
the  same.  Ordinarily  they  grow  in  what  may  be 
termed  deep,  moist,  friable  clays,  underlaid  with  a 
subsoil  of  clay  of  medium  density.  They  grow  least 
well  on  soils  impregnated  with  alkali  and  on  infertile 
sands,  more  especially  when  these  are  ill  supplied 
with  moisture. 

Those  soils  usually  spoken  of  as  swamp  lands 
have  special  adaptation  for  the  growth  of  alsike 
clover  when  they  rest  on  a  clay  subsoil,  and  when 
the  water  table  has  been  sufficiently  lowered  in  them 


74  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

by  some  form  of  drainage.  But  alsike  clover  will  also 
grow  well  in  some  of  those  lands  which  have  highest 
adaptation  for  the  medium,  red  and  mammoth  sorts, 
more  especially  those  of  them  that  are  strongly 
spiced  with  clay.  The  ordinary  upland  prairie  does 
not  seem  well  suited  to  the  production  of  alsike 
clover,  more  especially  when  this  soil  is  lacking  in 
moisture.  While  crimson  clover  will  flourish  on 
soils  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  other  red 
clovers,  it  would  seem  to  have  more  adaptation  for 
sandy  soils  than  these.  Much  of  the  soil  in  the  chief 
centers  for  growing  crimson  clover  is  sandy  in  tex- 
ture. This  greater  adaptation  arises  probably  in 
part  from  the  great  power  the  plants  have  to  gather 
food,  and  in  part  from  the  moist  character  of  the 
climate  in  crimson  clover  centers  during  those  por- 
tions of  the  year  in  which  the  crop  is  produced. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — As  clover  is  a  soil  reno- 
vator, the  aim  should  be,  first,  to  grow  it  on  land  in 
which  it  is  specially  desirable  to  increase  the  supply 
of  nitrogen;  second,  on  land  where  it  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  crop  that  requires  an  abundant  supply 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  to  enable  it  to  produce  abun- 
dantly. It  should  also  be  sown  on  land  that  is  at 
least  measurably  clean,  as  an  abundant  growth  of 
weeds  in  the  crop  will  not  only  lessen  the  yield,  but 
will  impair  its  feeding  value  in  proportion  as  they 
are  present.  There  is  special  fitness,  therefore,  in 
laying  down  to  clover,  land  that  has  produced  a  crop 
to  which  clean  cultivation  was  given,  as,  for  instance, 
a  crop  of  corn,  potatoes  or  field  roots.  And  the 
reasons  are  equally  good  for  following  the  clover 
crop  with  wheat,  oats  or  barley,  corn  or  potatoes- 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  75 

In  some  sections  it  is  common  to  grow  medium 
red  clover,  corn  or  potatoes  and  small  grain  in  a  three 
years'  rotation.  When  the  conditions  are  suitable 
the  plan  is  an  admirable  one.  But  few  methods  of 
crop  production  will  compare  with  it  in  the  easy 
maintenance  of  soil  fertility  and  in  the  profits  that 
grow  out  of  the  system.  The  other  leading  kinds 
of  clover,  however,  are  not  so  well  adapted  as  the 
medium  for  such  a  rotation.  The  mammoth  does 
not  produce  a  second  growth,  for  being  plowed  under, 
as  does  the  common  red.  The  alsike  is  perennial  in 
its  habit  of  growth,  and  the  crimson  is  better  adapted 
to  another  form  of  rotation,  as  will  be  shown  below. 

The  medium  and  mammoth  clovers  may,  never- 
theless, be  made  to  fit  into  any  kind  of  a  rotation. 
The  aim  should  be  to  grow  them  at  short  rather  than 
at  long  intervals  in  the  rotation,  and  for  several 
reasons.  First,  as  previously  intimated,  they  have 
great  power  to  enrich  the  land  by  depositing  in  it 
nitrogen  drawn  from  the  air;  second,  they  have 
much  power  to  gather  supplies  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  in  the  subsoil,  much  of  which  is  deposited 
again  in  the  cultivable  strata;  third,  they  improve 
the  mechanical  condition  of  the  land  by  the  abun- 
dance of  the  vegetable  deposit  contained  in  the  roots, 
and,  fourth,  the  humus  thus  supplied  greatly 
increases  the  power  of  the  land  to  hold  moisture, 
whether  it  comes  from  above  or  below.  There  is 
probably  no  other  plant  grown  that  is  capable  of 
exercising  so  beneficent  an  influence  on  farming. 

The  place  for  crimson  clover  is,  properly  speak- 
ing, that  of  a  catch  crop.  It  is  usually  grown  as  the 
antecedent  of  or  the  consequent  to  some  other  crop 


76  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

grown  the  same  season.  And  this  is  true  of  it 
whether  it  is  grown  for  pasture,  for  soiling  food,  for 
hay  or  for  green  manure.  It  may  with  much  pro- 
priety be  preceded  by  such  quick-growing  early  sum- 
mer crops  as  vegetables  and  certain  of  the  early 
maturing  cereals,  and  followed  by  such  crops  as  pota- 
toes, corn  or  any  of  the  sorghums,  and  on  soils  low 
in  fertility  by  cowpeas  or  soy  beans. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
clover  seed  in  any  of  its  varieties,  the  aim  should  be 
to  secure  a  seed  bed  fine,  firm,  deep,  moist  and  clean. 
It  should  be  fine  that  the  clover  seeds  may  be  more 
perfectly  hidden  from  the  light,  and  that  the  tender, 
tiny  rootlets  may  easily  ramify  the  soil  in  search  of 
food.  It  should  be  firm  to  prevent  evaporation,  too 
rapid  from  the  surface.  It  should  be  deep  to  allow 
the  tap  roots  to  go  down  readily.  But  in  light  sands, 
or  spongy  loam  soils  of  the  prairie,  shallow  cultiva- 
tion would  be  preferable  unless  done  a  good  while 
previously  to  the  sowing  of  the  seed  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  sufficiently  firming  such  soils.  It  should 
be  moist  to  promote  quick  germination  and  rapid 
growth.  It  should  be  clean  to  secure  an  abundant 
growth  in  the  clover  and  to  produce  a  good  quality 
of  food. 

The  first  of  these  conditions  may  be  more 
readily  secured  when  the  soil  is  plowed  in  the 
autumn,  and  such  plowing  is  also  favorable  to  secur- 
ing all  the  conditions  named.  Deep  plowing  can  be 
done  much  more  advantageously  in  the  fall  than  in 
the  spring,  where  fall  plowing  is  in  order.  But  in 
climates  with  much  rainfall  in  winter,  autumn  plow- 
ing may  be  less  judicious  than  spring  plowing, 


PLANTS   OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  77 

especially  where  the  soil  contains  much  clay.  The 
winter  rains  cause  it  to  "run  together"  in  a  way  that 
increases  the  labor  of  subsequent  cultivation,  and 
that  further  imperils  the  abundant  and  vigorous 
growth  of  the  plants.  Some  soils  are  so  friable  that 
they  call  for  but  little  pulverization;  other  soils,  as 
clays,  are  oftentimes  cloddy  on  the  surface.  It  is 
especially  important  that  these  shall  be  made  fine  by 
the  repeated  use  of  the  roller  and  harrow.  Firmness 
in  the  seed  bed  may  be  secured  by  plowing  the  land  a 
considerable  time  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the  seed, 
or  by  using  the  roller  freely  on  it.  Autumn  plowed 
lands  always  furnish  a  seed  bed  more  firm  than  those 
that  are  spring  plowed,  a  fact  of  much  significance 
in  cultivating  the  soils  of  the  northwestern  prairies. 
When  firming  some  classes  of  these  soils,  by  running 
a  heavy  roller  over  them,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
follow  the  roller  with  a  light  harrow  to  prevent  them 
being  more  or  less  carried  away  by  the  wind.  Deep 
cultivation  is  secured,  of  course,  by  simply  plowing 
more  deeply,  and  in  some  instances  by  subsoiling. 

In  some  sections  of  the  prairie  the  growth  of 
clover  is  greatly  promoted  by  plowing  so  deeply  that 
some  of  the  firmer  subsoil  shall  be  brought  to  the 
surface.  But  with  nearly  all  classes  of  soils,  if  much 
of  the  subsoil  were  brought  to  the  surface  at  one 
time  the  influence  on  plant  growth  at  the  first  would 
be  harmful,  because  of  the  unameliorated  condition 
of  such  subsoils.  The  management  that  secures  a 
fine  tilth  and  a  firm  seed  bed  will  also  tend  to  increase 
the  moisture  in  the  land.  When  the  clover  seed  is 
sown  early  in  the  spring,  a  clean  seed  bed  can  only 
be  secured  by  cultivation  given  the  previous  season, 


78  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

but  when  sowing  the  seed  is  deferred  until  late  in 
the  spring  or  until  summer,  the  seed  bed  may  be 
made  clean  near  the  surface  by  the  frequent  use  of 
the  harrow  between  the  opening  of  spring  and  the 
sowing  of  the  seed. 

When  growing  clover  for  soiling,  it  is  very 
important  that  heavy  yields  shall  be  obtained,  since 
a  heavy  crop  is  so  much  easier  to  gather  than  a  light 
one.  The  former  may  easily  be  lifted,  and  with 
sufficient  cleanness,  without  using  a  rake;  whereas, 
the  latter  would  require  to  be  raked,  thus  adding  very 
much  to  the  labor  of  gathering  the  crop,  and  to  the 
area  of  land  required  to  grow  it.  One  great  advan- 
tage from  growing  soiling  crops,  viz.,  that  of 
intensive  production,  would  thus  be  defeated.  It 
is  always  expedient,  therefore,  to  make  land  quite 
rich  that  is  to  grow  clover  for  soiling,  when  it  is  not 
so  already,  by  the  addition  of  fertilizers.  Of  these, 
farmyard  manure  is  certainly  one  of  the  best;  and 
when  applied  it  will  of  course  feed  the  nurse  crop  as 
well  as  the  clover.  The  kind  or  kinds  of  commercial 
fertilizer  or  fertilizers  that  may  be  employed  with 
most  advantage  will  depend  upon  the  needs  of  the 
land.  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are 
most  frequently  needed,  but  in  quantities  that  vary 
according  to  conditions,  and  in  many  instances 
lime  acts  very  beneficially.  On  some  soils  the 
growing  of  the  clover  is  greatly  stimulated  by  sow- 
ing on  the  young  plants  when  the  period  of  growth 
is  beginning  or  has  already  begun,  an  application  of 
gypsum,  usually  not  less  than  100  pounds  per  acre 
and  not  more  than  300  pounds.  In  other  instances, 
marked  benefit  results  from  sowing  wood  ashes. 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  79 

leached  or  unleached,  on  the  crop  previous  to  the 
season  of  active  growth.  The  application  of  leached 
ashes  should  be  about  four  times  as  heavy  as  that  of 
unleached  ashes,  that  is  to  say,  it  may  run  from  about 
200  bushels  per  acre  upward. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — Clover  seed  may  be  sown  by 
hand,  by  using-  a  hand  seed  sower,  or  by  the  grain 
drill  with,  and,  in  some  instances,  without  an  attach- 
ment for  sowing  grass  seeds.  Which  of  these 
methods  should  be  adopted  will  depend  on  various 
conditions,  such  as  relate  to  soils  and  soil  properties 
and  to  the  machinery  that  is  available.  When  the 
seed  is  sown  by  hand,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  with 
two  hands  rather  than  with  one,  and  to  distribute  the 
seeds  quite  evenly.  The  seed  can  be  carried  in  a 
seed  box  or  sack  suspended  at  a  suitable  hight  against 
the  breast  of  the  sower  and  kept  in  place  by  the  use 
of  shoulder  straps.  Much  care  should  be  taken  to 
choose  a  still  time  for  hand  sowing  the  seed,  as,  for 
instance,  the  early  morning,  and  also  a  condition  of 
soil  that  hinders  its  undue  adherence  to  the  feet 
of  the  sower. 

That  form  of  hand  seeder  which  is  wheeled  on 
the  land  on  a  hand  barrow  frame  distributes  the  seed 
more  evenly  than  would  be  possible  in  sowing  by  the 
method  just  described,  and  it  can  be  sown  when  the 
winds  are  blowing  at  a  rate  that  would  forbid  scat- 
tering the  seed  by  hand  at  such  a  time.  When  the 
seed  can  be  sown  with  the  grain  drill,  the  saving  in 
labor  is  very  considerable  and  the  work  is  also  done 
in  excellent  form.  When  it  is  desired  to  bury  the 
seed  deeply,  as  on  spongy  prairie  soils,  it  may  be 
thus  planted  by  mixing  the  clover  seed  along  with 


8O  •      SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  grain.  When  a  less  covering  is  sought,  as  in 
sowing  under  average  conditions,  the  seed  is  allowed 
to  fall  in  front  of  the  drill  tubes,  and  when  a  still 
lighter  covering  is  desired,  as  when  the  seed  falls 
on  heavy  soils,  it  is  covered  by  using  a  roller  on  the 
land  after  the  seed  has  thus  been  dropped  upon  its 
surface.  And  in  yet  other  instances,  as  when  the 
soil  is  quite  heavy  and  ample  moisture  is  assured, 
the  seed  thus  deposited  is  frequently  allowed  to  lie 
unburied.  But  when  a  light  covering  can  be  secured 
for  clover  seed,  the  germination  of  the  seed  is  more 
certain  and  the  ability  of  the  young  plants  to  with- 
stand dry  weather  is  increased. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  will  vary  with 
the  variety  sown,  with  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and 
with  the  proportion  of  seed  of  other  grass  plants  that 
may  be  sown  along  with  the  clover.  When  clover 
is  sown  alone,  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  per  acre 
of  the  crimson  clover  are  usually  sown,  but  some- 
times a  less  quantity,  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds 
of  the  medium  red  and  mammoth  species  and  from 
four  to  six  pounds  of  the  alsike.  The  difference  in 
relative  quantities  sown  arises  chiefly  from  the  dif- 
ference in  the  relative  size  of  the  seeds  and  the 
difference  in  the  capacity  of  the  plants  for  stooling. 
The  richer  the  soil  also  the  less  the  quantity  of  the 
seed  required,  and  the  amount  of  clover  that  ought 
to  be  sown  will  of  course  be  reduced  as  grass  seeds 
are  added  to  the  seed  sown. 

Since  clover,  when  it  grows  vigorously,  is  liable 
to  lie  down  when  sown  alone,  it  is  considered  advan- 
tageous to  sow  along  with  it  the  seed  of  some  grass, 
that  the  grass  plants  thus  produced  may  sustain  the 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  8l 

clover.  Timothy  is  more  commonly  grown  thus 
than  any  other  grass,  because  of  its  very  general 
adaptation,  but  in  some  localities  tall  oat  grass  may 
better  serve  the  end  sought,  since  it  is  about  as  early 
as  clover  in  its  habit  of  growth.  As  timothy  matures 
about  the  same  time  as  the  alsike  and  mammoth 
clovers,  it  is  more  suitable  for  being  sown  along 
with  these  than  with  the  medium  sort.  But  it 
should  not  be  sown  with  the  expectation  that  it  will 
furnish  a  support  to  crimson  clover,  because  of  the 
much  more  rapid  growth  of  the  clover.  For  every 
pound  of  the  seed  that  is  added  to  the  mixture  sown, 
the  clover  seed  should  be  reduced  in  the  same  propor- 
tion, and  sometimes  the  reduction  in  the  clover 
should  be  greater  relatively.  But  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  have  the  timothy  seed  form  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  quantity  of  seed  sown. 

The  period  for  sowing  clover  may  be  made  to 
cover  all  the  spring  months,  and  in  some  instances 
the  early  summer  months,  but  the  medium,  mammoth 
and  alsike  clovers  are  more  commonly  sown  in  early 
spring.  They  should  seldom  be  sown  in  autumn, 
as  the  young  plants  cannot  endure  the  cold  of  the 
winter  following.  But  to  this  there  may  be  seme 
exceptions.  In  some  instances  the  seed  is  sown 
while  the  old  snow  yet  lingers,  but  when  thus  sown 
some  of  the  seed  is  liable  to  be  carried  away  with 
the  vanishing  snows,  when  the  melting  of  the  latter 
is  hastened  by  warm  rains.  At  other  times  it  is 
sown  when  the  ground  is  honeycombed  by  spring 
frosts.  The  seed  is  thus  covered  by  the  action  of 
frost  and  sun.  In  other  instances  it  is  sown  on  a 
light  fall  of  snow,  usually  spoken  of  as  "sugar 


82  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

snow."  When  the  latter  melts  it  frequently  carries 
much  of  the  seed  down  into  the  soil.  Clover  seed 
is  seldom  if  ever  sown  thus  early,  except  with  a  nurse 
crop  of  winter  wheat  or  rye.  Usually  it  would  be  a 
safer  way  to  defer  sowing  the  seed  until  the  surface 
of  the  soil  has  so  dried  that  when  the  seed  is  sown 
it  may  be  covered  with  the  harrow.  The  harrow- 
ing if  properly  done  is  beneficial  to  the  nurse  crop  as 
well  as  the  clover  seed.  But  in  some  instances  the 
harrow  cannot  be  used,  as  in  clay  soils,  which  remain 
unduly  moist  in  the  spring. 

When  clover  seed  is  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  of 
spring  grain,  as,  for  instance,  barley,  wheat  or  oats, 
it  should  be  covered  more  or  less  deeply;  the  later 
the  period  of  sowing  the  more  imperative  is  it  that 
the  seed  should  be  so  covered.  Where  moisture  is 
usually  sufficiently  plentiful,  the  plan  of  sowing 
clover  seed  with  a  nurse  crop  is  commendable.  But 
all  nurse  crops  are  not  equally  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  clover.  Those  which  are  most  favor- 
able include  barley  and  winter  rye ;  those  which  are 
least  favorable  include  such  crops  as  oats  and  millet. 
But  when  clover  is  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  and  the 
weather  turns  dry,  if  the  nurse  crop  can  be  pastured 
off,  or  cut  at  some  stage  previous  to  that  of  maturity, 
the  hazard  to  the  young  clover  plants  will  be  so  far 
lessened,  as  they  are  then  deprived  to  a  smaller 
extent  of  the  strengthening  influences  of  sunlight 
and  moisture.  On  the  soils  of  the  prairie,  so  light 
that  they  are  springy  to  the  tread,  a  good  stand  of 
clover  may  frequently  be  obtained  by  sowing  it  with 
a  crop  that  is  to  be  pastured,  as,  for  instance,  a  crop 
of  mixed  cereals  or  rape.  The  treading  of  the  live 


PLANTS  OF  THE  CLOVER  FAMILY.  83 

stock  would  seem  to  react  beneficially  to  the  young 
clover  plants  by  impacting  the  soil  near  the  surface 
and  thus  lessening  the  loss  of  moisture  through  sur- 
face evaporation.  Sheep  are  considered  more  suit- 
able for  such  pasturing  than  cattle  or  swine. 

But  there  may  be  instances  when  a  stand  of 
clover  can  best  be  secured  by  sowing  it  alone,  as  when 
the  normal  supply  of  moisture  is  low.  When  thus 
sown,  the  soil  should  be  made  as  clean  as  possible 
before  sowing  the  seed.  It  may  not  be  possible  thus 
to  clean  the  land  when  the  seed  is  sown  early,  but 
it  may  be  cleaned,  at  least  measurably  well,  by  sur- 
face cultivation,  when  the  seed  is  deposited  late  in 
the  season.  When  sown  on  weed  infested  land,  the 
weeds  should  be  kept  down  with  the  mowing 
machine. 

Crimson  clover  is  not  usually  sown  earlier  than 
July,  and  it  is  not  considered  wise  to  sow  it  later 
than  September,  unless  in  the  mildest  portions  of  the 
south.  Near  the  northern  limit  of  production  it  is 
thought  more  or  less  hazardous  to  sow  later  than 
August.  If  the  plants  enter  the  winter  in  a  weak 
condition,  the  danger  is  imminent  that  they  will 
perish  before  spring.  When  preparing  the  land,  it 
is  sometimes  thought  preferable  to  seek  fine  surface 
cultivation  without  plowing  the  land,  rather  than  the 
deep  cultivation  which  plowing  secures.  In  some 
instances,  as  on  clean  land,  from  which  early  vege- 
tables have  been  harvested,  the  seed  may  be  at  once 
sown  and  covered  with  the  harrow.  In  other 
instances  it  is  sown  in  the  standing  corn  and  cov- 
ered lightly  with  the  last  cultivation  given  to  the 
corn  crop.  There  may  be  instances  when  it  would 


84  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

(be  proper  to  sow  it  amid  grain  stubbles  and  to  cover 
it  with  the  harrow.  It  is  manifest  that  the  methods 
of  sowing  this  crop  are  various.  To  so  great  an 
extent  is  this  true  that  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  try 
to  give  directions  that  would  precisely  meet  the  needs 
of  each  locality. 

Cultivation. — Clover  does  not  require  any  culti- 
vation in  the  sense  in  which  drilled  corn  and  sorghum 
call  for  the  same.  But  it  is  important  that  it  shall 
not  be  grazed  too  closely  the  first  season,  lest  its 
power  to  withstand  winter  weather  shall  be  unduly 
weakened.  In  a  large  majority  of  instances  it 
should  not  be  pastured  or  mowed  the  first  year  when 
it  has  been  sown  with  a  nurse  crop.  But  in  some 
seasons  it  may  grow  so  rank  that  by  its  own  weight 
it  would  smother  underneath  the  snow,  unless  pas- 
tured more  or  less.  In  some  localities  quite  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  clover,  it  will  produce  seed  the 
first  year  unless  means  are  taken  to  prevent  it  from 
doing  so.  To  allow  the  plants  to  produce  seed  the 
first  year  will  materially  tend  to  weaken  their  growth 
the  second  year.  To  prevent  such  a  result,  such 
clover  should  be  cut  by  the  mower  set  high  and  when 
it  is  coming  into  bloom.  The  plants  cut  off  should 
be  allowed  to  lie  where  they  fell.  They  will  act  as 
a  mulch  to  protect  the  crop.  But  when  clover  is 
sown  early  and  not  along  with  a  nurse  crop,  there 
may  be  instances,  not  a  few,  when  it  would  be  advis- 
able to  cut  it  for  hay  or  green  food. 

Feeding. — The  harvesting  of  green  clover  for 
soiling  in  all  its  varieties  may  begin  as  soon  as  the 
first  heads  appear,  but  more  food  will  be  secured  if 
the  cutting  is  deferred  until  the  crimson  tint  on  the 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  85 

heads  is  pronounced.  The  cutting  and  feeding  of 
the  crop  as  green  food  may  be  continued  as  long  as 
the  plants  are  eaten  with  a  relish  by  live  stock.  When 
ready  for  being  made  into  hay,  it  is  common  not  to 
feed  it  longer  as  green  food.  This  stage  will  be 
reached  by  the  time  that  the  crop  is  in  complete 
bloom.  It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  che  period  for 
using  clover  as  soiling  food  is  a  short  one,  not  longer 
usually  than  from  two  to  three  weeks,  and  if  a  plat 
or  field  of  alsike,  or  mammoth  clover  has  also  been 
sown  in  addition  to  the  medium  red  clover,  it  will 
prolong  the  feeding  for  about  an  equal  period.  The 
two  crops,  therefore,  will  provide  green  food  for  five 
or  six  weeks  in  succession.  The  medium  red  clover 
will  also  furnish  a  second  cutting  of  soiling  food 
which  will  be  available  in  about  six  or  seven  weeks 
subsequent  to  the  first  cutting,  when  grown  under 
normal  conditions.  The  period  of  cutting  will  vary 
from  about  June  ist  to  July  ist  north  of  the 
40th  parallel. 

The  green  food  is  cut  daily  or  every  other  day, 
as  may  be  desired,  by  using  the  scythe  or  field  mower, 
and  is  fed  in  pastures,  paddocks  or  from  feed  racks 
in  the  yards,  as  may  be  thought  most  advisable.  In 
large  quantities  it  is  of  course  drawn  on  a  truck  or 
wagon.  When  cut  with  the  mower  it  should  not  lie 
many  hours  in  very  bright  weather  without  being 
"bunched,"  as  it  will  soon  lose  so  much  moisture  that 
its  succulence  will  be  too  much  lessened.  A  little 
wilting  tends  to  obviate  the  danger  from  bloating  in 
the  animals  to  which  it  is  fed.  This  danger  with 
cattle  and  sheep  is  always  imminent  in  some  degree 
when  green  clover  is  fed  in  a  very  succulent  condi- 


86  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

tion  and  unstinted  in  quality,  when  the  animals  are 
hungry.  And  the  danger  is  further  increased  by 
dampness  caused  by  rain  or  dew. 

ALFALFA. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  saliva),  sometimes  called 
lucern,  has  a  higher  adaptation  for  soiling  than  any 
other  plant  of  the  clover  family.  This  arises,  first, 
from  the  rapid  and  prolonged  character  of  its 
growth ;  second,  from  its  long-lived  character ;  and, 
third,  from  the  excellent  quality  of  the  food  which 
it  produces.  Alfalfa  is  ready  for  being  cut  as  green 
food  at  least  two  weeks  earlier  than  medium  red 
clover,  and  in  some  instances  it  will  yield  a  cutting 
every  month  thereafter  during  the  season.  There 
are  some  favored  sections  in  the  United  States  in 
which,  by  judicious  managment,  alfalfa  may  be  cut 
and  fed  as  green  food  every  month  in  the  year.  The 
duration  of  alfalfa  meadows  will  depend  in  a  great 
measure  on  the  conditions  of  soil  and  subsoil,  more 
especially  the  latter,  while  it  will  sometimes  fail 
within  a  few  years  from  the  date  of  sowing ;  in  other 
instances,  it  will  continue  to  grow  and  thrive  indefi- 
nitely. Alfalfa  meadows  are  now  in  existence  which 
have  been  mowed  every  year  for  more  than  forty 
years.  But  of  course  the  average  duration  does  not 
cover  nearly  so  long  a  period.  The  excellent  quality 
of  the  food  arises  in  part  from  its  nitrogenous  char- 
acter and  in  part  from  its  palatability. 

In  view  of  the  pre-eminent  suitability  of  this 
plant  for  soiling  purposes,  it  seems  strange  that  this 
fact  has  not  been  more  generally  recognized  by 


Pig.  10.    Alfalfa,  Single  Plant 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm. 


88  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

farmers.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  would  be 
easy  to  obtain  abundant  supplies  of  green  food  from 
alfalfa  from  spring  until  fall  at  a  less  cost  than  it  can 
be  obtained  from  any  other  source. 

Green  alfalfa  is  not  only  relished  by  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine  of  all  ages,  but  it  is  specially 
adapted  to  their  needs.  When  fed  freely  to  young 
animals  it  promotes  a  large  and  vigorous  growth. 
Along  with  suitable  grain  adjuncts,  it  will  fatten 
animals  quickly  and  will  give  them  a  fine  finish. 
Lambs  can  be  raised  upon  this  food  alone,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  milk  furnished  by  their  dams.  And  with 
but  a  limited  addition  of  more  carbonaceous  food, 
swine  may  be  raised  upon  it  until  ready  for  the  block. 
Of  course  during  the  fattening  period,  grain  must 
be  the  chief  reliance.  But  to  no  class  of  stockmen 
is  green  alfalfa  of  more  benefit  than  to  dairymen.  It 
is  excellent  for  milk  production,  and  the  long  season 
during  which  it  is  accessible  further  accentuates  its 
value.  Of  course,  in  the  green  form,  it  should  be 
fed  with  some  restriction  to  horses  at  work,  but  for 
all  other  classes  of  horses  it  makes  excellent  food. 
It  is  also  helpful  when  fed  to  fowls.  Other  things 
being  equal,  meat  and  milk  cannot  be  produced  any- 
where more  cheaply  than  in  areas  possessed  of  high 
adaptation  for  growing  alfalfa. 

The  yields  of  green  food  furnished  per  acre  for 
the  season  vary  with  the  number  and  strength  of  the 
cuttings  to  be  obtained.  There  are  localities  in 
which  alfalfa  will  grow,  and  yet  the  yields  obtained 
are  not  equal  to  those  which  would  be  obtained  from 
an  equal  area  of  red  clover.  In  these  it  should  not 
be  grown.  The  number  of  cuttings  obtained  per 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  89 

season  in  the  green  form  varies  from  one  to  seven  or 
eight,  but  the  average  may  be  stated  as  four,  and 
the  yield  per  cutting  may  be  put  at  four  to  six  tons 
per  acre.  In  areas  not  a  few,  therefore,  from  sixteen 
to  twenty-four  tons  of  green  alfalfa  may  be  obtained 
per  acre  from  season  to  season,  and  with  no  other 
labor  after  the  crop  has  been  established  than  that 
of  opening  the  sluices  which  let  in  the  irrigating 
waters.  Nor  are  those  alfalfa  lands  likely  to  become 
exhausted  soon,  because  of  the  extent  of  the  subsoil 
from  which  they  draw  food  supplies. 

Distribution, — But  few  plants  are  of  wider  dis- 
tribution than  alfalfa.  While  it  is  not  able  to  endure 
temperatures  so  low  as  some  of  the  real  clovers,  it 
will  thrive  in  latitudes  too  warm  and  dry  to  produce 
these  kinds  in  good  form.  The  growth  of  alfalfa 
would  seem  to  be  more  hedged  in  by  conditions  that 
relate  to  soil  and  subsoil  than  by  those  which  relate 
to  climate.  Because  of  these  limitations,  alfalfa  will 
yield  abundantly  in  certain  areas  within  a  state,  and 
in  other  areas  in  close  proximity  to  them  it  cannot 
be  grown  at  all.  It  can  probably  be  successfully 
grown  in  portions  of  each  state  in  the  Union.  So 
wide  is  its  distribution  that  it  is  successfully  grown 
in  some  portions  of  Quebec,  Ontario  and  British 
Columbia  in  Canada. 

But  the  distinctive  alfalfa  belt  of  the  United 
States  lies  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  south  of  the 
Missouri.  It  embraces  nearly  every  Rocky  moun- 
tain valley  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  It  includes 
areas  possessed  of  subterranean  waters,  not  too  dis- 
tant from  the  surface,  as  well  as  those  which  it  may 
be  necessary  to  irrigate  at  certain  seasons;  also 


90  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

certain  tillable  upland  soils  in  several  states  which 
cannot  be  subjected  to  irrigation.  The  variety  known 
as  the  Turkestan,  recently  introduced  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  is  proving  so 
hardy,  that  it  is  now  thought  it  can  be  successfully 
grown  in  areas  that  are  too  dry  and  too  cold  for  the 
successful  growth  of  the  kinds  heretofore  grown. 

While  alfalfa  will  produce  well  in  some  rainy 
climates,  it  has  higher  adaptation  for  those  that  are 
dry,  up  to  a  certain  limit.  Drenching  rains  which 
literally  saturate  the  ground  with  water  are  harmful 
to  it  rather  than  helpful.  And  in  climates  where 
the  period  of  growth  is  long,  this  crop  is  propor- 
tionately more  helpful  than  in  those  where  it  is  short. 
It  is  not  a  little  surprising  that  a  soiling  crop  so 
useful  should  not  have  been  grown  to  a  greater 
extent  in  the  past  in  the  lower  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states,  since  the  conditions  in  certain  areas  of  these 
are  quite  favorable.  With  the  greater  need  that  is 
now  being  felt  for  a  supply  of  such  foods,  the  produc- 
tion of  alfalfa  will  doubtless  greatly  increase  in  the 
near  future. 

Soil. — The  soil  and  subsoil  more  than  anything 
else  are  potent  factors  in  determining  where  alfalfa 
may  and  may  not  be  grown.  And  of  these  the  sub- 
soil is  the  more  important.  The  reasons  will  be  at 
once  apparent  when  it  is  remembered  that  alfalfa 
roots  grow  deeply  and  that  the  major  portion  of  the 
food  obtained  from  the  earth  by  the  plants  comes 
from  the  subsoil  rather  than  from  the  soil.  The  soil 
conditions  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa  are 
found  in  loam  soils,  inclining  to  sand  or  gravel,  and 
spiced  with  a  goodly  increment  of  clay.  But  alfalfa 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  9! 

will  frequently  flourish  in  clay  soils  with  no  slight 
degree  of  adhesion  in  them,  providing  the  subsoil 
conditions  are  suitable.  The  vegetable  soils  of  the 
western  prairies  are  not  usually  well  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  alfalfa.  The  volcanic  soils  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  region  furnish  ideal  conditions  when  suffi- 
ciently supplied  with  moisture. 

In  a  subsoil  in  which  alfalfa  roots  are  to  grow 
vigorously,  the  most  important  requisite  is  that  it 
should  be  easily  penetrable.  Ideal  conditions  are 
sometimes  found  for  starting  an  alfalfa  crop  success- 
fully, and  yet  the  plants  soon  fail  because  of  the 
impenetrable  character  of  the  subsoil.  The  second 
great  requisite  in  the  subsoil  is,  it  should  be  deep. 
The  necessary  depth  will  vary,  but  it  should  not  be 
less  than  several  feet  to  provide  ample  feeding 
ground  for  the  roots;  and  a  third  requisite  is  that 
the  subsoil  should  be  moist.  But  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year  it  should  be  free  from  stagnant  water  to  the 
depth  of  several  feet  from  the  surface.  These  con- 
ditions are  best  obtained  in  certain  of  the  almost 
rainless  river  valleys  of  the  west.  If  the  soils  and 
subsoils  are  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  underneath  them 
are  sheets  of  water  at  varying  depths,  the  plants  are 
supplied  with  moisture  from  this  water  through  the 
process  of  capillary  attraction.  With  similar  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  subsoil,  except  that  the  ground 
water  is  absent,  the  alfalfa  plants  would  perish  unless 
irrigated.  This  explains  why  alfalfa  cannot  be 
grown  in  wide  areas  of  the  semi-arid  country  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  where  the  soil  and  subsoil  requi- 
sites are  all  that  could  be  desired,  but  for  the  absence 
of  the  ground  waters. 


92  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

In  the  absence  of  irrigation  and  also  of  marked 
humidity  in  the  climate,  what  may  be  termed  mild 
clay  subsoils  furnish  the  best  subsoil  conditions  for 
growing  alfalfa.  In  these  it  gathers  suitable  food. 
These  subsoils,  oftentimes,  possess  a  sufficiency  of 
moisture  through  all  the  season  to  sustain  good  crops. 
Of  course,  in  dry  seasons  the  subsoil  moisture  may 
become  so  reduced  as  to  materially  interfere  writh 
abundant  production.  But  in  climates  of  average 
humidity,  they  are  satisfactory  for  growing  this  crop. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Properly  speaking, 
alfalfa  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  a  rotation  plant, 
owing  to  the  long  period  through  which  it  continues 
to  grow.  That  is  one  of  the  objections  urged  against 
growing  it.  But  in  certain  areas  favorable  to  its 
development,  it  may  be  grown  for  a  term  of  years 
more  or  less  limited,  and  then  followed  by  certain 
other  crops  for  an  intervening  term  of  years.  As  it 
is  one  of  those  plants  which  gather  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  it  is  so  far  a  soil  renovator.  Alfalfa  should, 
therefore,  precede  some  crop  which  requires  much 
nitrogen  to  perfect  its  growth,  as,  for  instance,  corn 
or  wheat.  Deep-rooted  plants  may  follow  alfalfa 
with  much  propriety,  since  they  can  find  ample  food 
in  the  subsoils  even,  in  which  alfalfa  roots  are  mold- 
ering,  as,  for  instance,  field  roots,  or  rape.  And  the 
crop  that  precedes  alfalfa  should,  if  possible,  be  a 
cleaning  one. 

The  task  of  plowing  a  soil  filled  brimful  of 
alfalfa  roots  of  strong  growth  is  by  no  means  an 
easy  one.  But  it  may  be  facilitated  by  using  a  plow 
with  a  share  somewhat  serrated  in  its  cutting  edge. 
When  the  plow  is  drawn,  these  serrations  will  cut 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  93 

the  roots  and  so  make  it  possible  to  turn  a  straight 
furrow. 

Preparing  the  Land. — The  preparation  of  the 
soil  that  will  be  the  most  suitable  for  alfalfa  will 
depend  upon  conditions  such  as  relate  to  variations 
in  soil  and  to  the  season  for  sowing  the  seed.  Speak- 
ing in  a  general  way,  the  seed  bed  should  be  deep, 
moist,  clean  and  of  fine  tilth.  But  with  upland  soils 
subjected  to  very  dry  conditions,  stirring  the  soil  to 
but  a  little  depth,  when  preparing  a  seed  bed,  would 
be  preferable.  The  firming  of  the  seed  bed  is  pecu- 
liarly applicable  to  the  upland  soils  of  the  south- 
western states,  but  it  will  oftentimes  be  necessary  to 
run  a  light  harrow  over  the  ground,  after  it  has  been 
firmed  with  a  heavy  roller,  to  prevent  the  wind  from 
lifting  the  soil  and  in  some  instances  to  prevent  the 
too  rapid  evaporation  of  soil  moisture.  When  the 
seed  is  sown  in  the  early  spring,  it  is  not  possible  at 
all  times  to  secure  a  clean  seed  bed  for  the  alfalfa, 
unless  it  is  made  to  follow  a  well  cultivated  crop  of 
the  previous  season.  There  may  also  be  instances 
in  which  the  labor  would  be  wisely  expended  in  sum- 
mer fallowing  the  land  the  previous  year.  When  it 
is  thus  fallowed  it  is  important  that  green  crops  be 
sown  upon  it  at  the  same  time  and  plowed  under, 
that  the  soil  may  thus  become  abundantly  supplied 
with  vegetable  matter.  Such  crops  as  autumn  sown 
rye  followed  by  a  quick  growing  legume  are  well 
adapted  to  such  an  end. 

When  the  seed  is  sown  late,  there  is  then  time 
to  clean  the  surface  soil  through  the  successive 
harro wings  that  may  be  given.  Because  of  the 
probable  duration  of  the  crop  when  established,  and 


94  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

because  of  the  recognized  tendency  in  weeds  and  in 
some  other  grasses  to  increase  and  thus  crowd  out 
the  alfalfa,  it  is  very  important  that  the  crop  be 
sown  upon  a  clean  seed  bed. 

When  alfalfa  is  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  that  is  best  suited  to  the  nurse 
crop  is  likely  also  to  prove  suitable  to  the  alfalfa. 
But  in  soils  with  much  adhesion,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  further  pulverize  them  before  they  are  in  the  best 
condition  to  receive  the  seed. 

In  some  instances,  it  will  be  better  to  plow  the 
land  in  the  autumn;  in  other  instances,  as  where 
rainy  winter  climates  prevail,  plowing  ought  to  be 
deferred  until  spring.  Sometimes,  as  in  soils  that 
adhere  overmuch,  deep  plowing  is  preferable  and 
subsoiling  may  even  be  very  advantageous ;  at  other 
times,  as  in  tilling  soils  of  the  opposite  extreme, 
shallow  plowing  would  be  preferable.  Usually  after 
crops  that  have  been  cultivated,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  finely  pulverize  the  surface  soil  when  preparing 
it  for  a  seed  bed. 

In  laying  down  a  piece  of  land  to  alfalfa,  it  is 
very  important  that  at  least  the  surface  soil  should 
have  in  it  much  available  fertility  as  well  as  that  it 
should  be  in  fine  condition  as  to  tilth,  while  it  is 
probably  true  that  no  plant  grown  as  food  for  live 
stock  has  greater  power  to  gather  the  elements  of 
support  from  the  soil,  the  subsoil  and  the  air  than 
alfalfa,  it  is  also  true  that  in  the  early  stages  of 
growth  alfalfa  readily  succumbs  to  vicissitudes  from 
various  sources,  as  excessive  wet  or  drouth,  heat  or 
cold,  overshading,  or  even  undershading.  The 
behavior  of  the  plant  in  after  years  depends  in  no 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  95 

little  degree  upon  the  nature  of  the  start  of  the  first 
season.  If  the  plants  are  weak  when  they  enter  the 
winter,  they  are  likely  to  perish  before  spring,  and 
if  the  stand  is  thin  at  the  first,  it  is  likely  to  become 
more  so,  though  in  some  rich  soils  it  may  be 
improved  by  adding  more  seed. 

Experience  has  taught  that  with  this  crop  also 
farmyard  manure  is  an  excellent  stimulant  to  growth. 
On  the  whole,  when  this  fertilizer  is  used  in  the  fresh 
form,  it  should  be  applied  with  the  previous  crop 
that  it  may  readily  give  up  to  the  young  plants  the 
unused  content  of  fertility,  and  that  many  of  the 
weed  seeds  in  it  may  be  given  time  to  sprout  before 
sowing  the  seed.  When  preparing  the  land  'for 
alfalfa  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  top-dress  the  land 
with  farmyard  manure,  even  though  much  reduced 
by  fermentation,  as  it  will  still  contain  weed  seeds 
that  will  prove  troublesome. 

The  artificial  fertilizers  that  ought  to  be  applied 
must  be  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  land.  They 
include  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime. 
The  need  for  applying  these  is  not  so  great  west  of 
the  eastern  Mississippi  watershed  as  east  from  that 
line.  The  gray  ash  soils  of  the  farther  west  are 
usually  abundantly  supplied  with  the  requisite  food 
elements.  These  fertilizers  may  better  be  applied 
before  the  seed  is  sown,  except  the  nitrogen,  which, 
in  some  forms  at  least,  is  more  helpful  when  sown  on 
the  young  plants.  Gypsum  will  benefit  young  alfalfa 
plants  quite  as  much  as  it  benefits  young  red  clover. 
And  it  may  be  stated  here,  that  unreduced  farmyard 
manure  applied  to  alkali  lands  is  so  far  an  excellent 
corrective  of  their  alkalinity. 


96  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — The  seed  may  be  sown  by 
hand,  with  the  hand  sower,  or  with  the  grain  drill. 
Since  alfalfa  is  a  somewhat  larger  seed  than  red 
clover  it  may  be  covered  rather  more  deeply, 
particularly  on  western  soils.  On  some  of  these  it 
may  be  sown  as  wheat,  that  is  to  say,  by  using  the 
ordinary  drill  tubes  used  in  sowing  grain. 

On  true  alfalfa  soils,  the  seed  is  seldom  sown 
with  a  nurse  crop,  but  in  moist  climates  this  method 
of  obtaining  a  stand  is  quite  feasible,  and  in  some 
instances  commendable.  It  is  generally  deemed 
preferable  to  sow  the  seed  without  a  nurse  crop,  that 
the  plants  may  have  the  full  benefit  of  all  the  season 
to  enable  them  to  take  possession  of  the  soil  to  the 
fullest  extent  possible.  Any  of  the  small  grains 
usually  sown  in  the  spring  will  answer  for  the  nurse 
crop,  but  of  these  barley  is  the  best.  And  there  are 
instances  in  which  winter  wheat  and  winter  rye  may 
form  the  nurse  crop.  It  may  frequently  be  unwise 
to  allow  the  nurse  crop  to  mature,  but  the  degree 
of  the  advancement  which  it  should  be  allowed  to 
make  will  depend  upon  conditions.  If  a  nurse  crop 
is  grown  it  should  never  be  at  the  expense  of  the 
alfalfa  crop.  And  in  a  large  majority  of  instances 
it  will  be  wiser  to  dispense  with  the  nurse  crop 
altogether. 

Opinions  differ  much  as  to  the  quantity  of  seed 
that  should  be  sown.  Amounts  named  as  suitable 
vary  from  twelve  to  thirty  pounds  per  acre.  Usually 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient, the  last  named  quantity  being  rather  more  in 
favor  on  true  alfalfa  soils.  Twelve  pounds  per  acre 
may  suffice  in  climates  possessed  of  moist  seasons. 


PLANTS  OF  THE  CLOVER  FAMILY.  97 

If  the  plants  are  sown  too  thinly  they  make  coarse 
hay.  Of  the  two  extremes,  excessive  seed  sowing 
is  the  least  harmful  since  the  tendency  is  constant  for 
the  plants  to  become  thinner. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  about  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  is  ready  to  till.  But  it  may  be 
possible  to  sow  the  plants  so  early  in  the  season  in 
certain  climates  that  the  newly  sprouted  plants  will 
succumb  to  a  severe  spring  frost.  But  when  they 
do,  of  course,  the  seed  can  again  be  sown.  With 
alfalfa  as  with  many  other  plants,  better  results  will 
probably  be  obtained  by  sowing  late  enough  to 
insure  continuous  growth.  In  mild  latitudes  it  may 
be  possible  to  sow  when  the  late  fall  rains  come,  but 
the  hazard  to  the  young  plants  in  the  winter  follow- 
ing is  to  be  reckoned  with. 

Cultivation. — Ordinarily  no  cultivation  is  given 
to  alfalfa.  But  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  where  labor  is  cheap,  it  is  planted  in  rows, 
and  hand  hoed,  to  give  the  plants  opportunity  to 
develop  favorably,  but  in  this  country  such  hand 
labor  would  be  too  costly.  It  is  important  that  the 
roots  be  strong  and  vigorous  when  they  enter  the 
first  winter,  as  that  is  usually  the  greatest  period  of 
hazard  to  the  young  plants.  When  grown  on  upland 
it  is  not  common  to  use  the  crop  for  food  the  first 
season.  But  it  may  be  necessary  and  highly  advan- 
tageous to  run  the  field  mower  over  it  once  or  oftener 
to  prevent  the  ripening  of  the  weeds  that  are  pretty 
certain  to  grow  in  it.  Close  cutting  would  seem  to 
be  more  beneficial  to  the  young  plants  than  cutting 
less  closely,  owing  probably  to  the  better  adjustment 
of  the  relations  as  to  moisture  present  in  the  soil  and 
7 


98  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  needs  of  the  young  plants.  All  the  plants  that 
fall  before  the  mower  are  allowed  to  remain  where 
they  fall.  When  the  crop  is  grown  under  irrigation, 
it  is  common  to  utilize  one  cutting  the  first  year  and 
sometimes  two.  But  the  young  crops  should  not  be 
pastured  the  first  year,  and  on  the  upland  it  should 
not  be  pastured  at  all  unless  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year.  Pasturing  in  the  winter  in  cold  climates  is 
particularly  injurious,  but  in  sections  where  the  crop 
grows  at  its  best,  it  may  be  pastured  even  in  the 
winter,  though  as  previously  intimated,  frequent  and 
prolonged  pasturing  is  thought  to  ultimately  injure 
the  stand  of  the  plants,  even  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions. 

Feeding. — Alfalfa  is  ready  for  being  harvested 
as  soiling  food  as  soon  as  the  blossom  buds  are 
formed.  It  may  be  cut  even  earlier  than  that,  more 
especially  when  fed  to  sheep  and  swine.  The  feed- 
ing should  begin  as  soon  as  the  food  is  ready,  as  in 
suitable  weather  it  rushes  very  quickly  to  maturity. 
But  the  residue  not  needed  as  soiling  food  may  with 
much  propriety  be  made  into  hay.  With  sufficient 
moisture  present,  the  crop  at  once  begins  to  grow 
again,  and  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  the  cutting 
of  the  preceding  growth  the  next  crop  is  ready. 
Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  it  is  customary  to  flood 
the  land  as  soon  as  the  crop  has  been  removed. 

As  the  alfalfa  soon  gets  woody  after  it  has 
reached  the  stage  of  full  bloom,  the  residue  not 
wanted  for  soiling  food  ought  to  be  cut  for  hay  even 
before  it  is  in  full  bloom,  else  the  quality  of  the  hay 
will  be  reduced.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  the 
feeding  period  from  each  crop  or  cutting  is  not  a 


IOO  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

long  one,  not  longer  usually  than  three  weeks.  If, 
however,  two  plats  or  fields  have  been  grown  by 
cutting  one  at  an  early  stage  of  growth,  and  then 
cutting  the  other,  and  again  the  first  and  likewise  the 
second  in  continuity  of  alternation  to  the  end  of  the 
season,  the  supply  of  alfalfa  for  soiling  may  under 
favorable  conditions  be  made  to  cover  the  entire  sea- 
son after  the  first  growth  is  ready  for  being  cut, 
which  is  usually  in  May  or  June,  according  to  the 
locality.  The  same  result  can  be  accomplished  with 
but  one  field  by  taking  care  to  cut  first  one  portion 
and  then  another,  that  the  part  first  cut  may  grow 
up  again  while  the  other  part  is  furnishing  soiling 
food.  But  in  the  absence  of  irrigation,  it  may  not 
be  possible  to  feed  this  food  without  interruption. 

The  scythe,  or  the  mowing  machine  is  used  in 
cutting  the  crop,  but  usually  the  latter.  When  cut 
it  may  be  drawn  and  fed  the  same  as  clover,  that  is 
to  say,  by  strewing  it  on  the  pasture,  by  putting  it 
into  feed  racks  in  a  yard  or  paddock,  or  by  feeding 
it  in  mangers.  It  should  be  wilted  more  or  less 
when  fed  to  cattle  and  sheep,  as  it  is  sometimes  liable 
to  produce  bloating  when  fed  without  stint  in  the 
green  form.  Enough  may  be  cut  at  one  time  to  last 
for  a  limited  number  of  days,  providing  it  is  not 
allowed  to  lie  broadcast  in  the  swath  where  it  fell 
beneath  the  mower. 

Although  horses  and  swine  are  oftentimes  pas- 
tured on  alfalfa,  some  growers  favor  feeding  it  to 
them  as  soiling  food  unless  where  the  conditions  for 
growth  are  exceedingly  favorable.  The  treading 
and  close  eating  of  horses  are  pretty  certain  to  mate- 
rially shorten  the  duration  of  a  stand  of  alfalfa 


PLANTS  OF  THE  CLOVER  FAtflLV.      '    V  IOI 


When  pigs  are  pastured  on  alfalfa  Without  intermit 
sion,  it  is  not  easy  to  regulate  the  pasturing  so  that 
the  food  will  be  kept  tender  and  appetizing.  But 
horses  and  pigs  are  pastured  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  on  alfalfa.  Sheep  are  not  very  much  pastured 
on  alfalfa  because  of  the  danger  from  bloating. 
When  fed  as  soiling  food  to  sheep  and  swine,  it 
ought  to  be  cut  while  younger  and  more  tender  than 
would  be  necessary  when  it  is  fed  to  horses  and 
cattle. 

The  long  period  during  which  alfalfa  may  be 
fed  makes  it  easily  possible  to  feed  it  in  conjunction 
with  other  soiling  foods  less  nitrogenous  in  char- 
acter, as,  for  instance,  corn  and  sorghum.  The 
alfalfa  may  be  fed  one  end  of  the  day  and 
green  food  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  same.  The 
variety  thus  secured  is  advantageous.  Alfalfa,  even 
in  the  green  form,  may  be  advantageously  used  in 
fattening  animals  along  with  some  carbonaceous 
food,  as  corn,  barley  or  rye,  but  its  highest  use  is 
found  in  growing  animals  and  in  producing  milk. 
The  owners  of  extensive  alfalfa  meadows  would 
seem  to  be  in  a  position  to  raise  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine  and  to  produce  dairy  products  more  cheaply 
than  these  can  be  produced  by  any  other  system  of 
arable  farming. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LEGUMINOUS     PLANTS     OTHER    THAN     Cl  OVER. 

The  legumes  are  a  numerous  family,  and  yet 
the  species  that  have  special  adaptation  to  soiling 
uses  are  not  many.  In  addition  to  plants  of  the 
clover  group,  the  chief  of  these  are  the  field  pea,  the 
common  vetch,  the  cowpea  and  the  soy  bean.  The 
cowpea  and  the  soy  bean  are  in  a  sense  the  comple- 
ments of  the  field  pea  and  the  common  vetch,  when 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  distribution. 
These  will  be  considered  separately. 

THE    FIELD    PEA. 

Outside  the  clover  family,  the  field  pea  (Pisum 
sativum)  is  probably  the  most  valuable  legume 
that  is  now  grown  on  this  continent.  The  esti- 
mate thus  put  upon  it  is  based  on  the  high 
nitrogen  content  which  it  contains,  upon  the 
high  relative  palatability  which  it  possesses  and 
upon  the  various  combinations  in  which  it  may 
be  grown.  Peas  in  combination  with  oats  is 
a  favorite  soiling  food  with  dairymen,  wherever 
these  can  be  successfully  grown  together.  As  a  food 
plant  its  value  is  probably  greater  when  grown  alone, 
but  owing  to  the  trailing  habit  of  growth  which 
characterizes  the  pea,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
sow  it  along  with  some  other  plant  when  used  in 

102 


t    S 

I* 

I 


IO4  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

soiling,  that  the  crop  may  be  harvested  with  greater 
ease,  and  that  the  value  of  the  pea  vines  as  stock  food 
may  not  be  impaired  by  their  lying  on  the  ground. 

Whether  fed  as  a  soiling  food  or  in  the  cured 
form,  peas  are  much  relished  by  all  kinds  of  domestic 
animals.  In  the  green  form,  peas  are  specially  suited 
to  the  needs  of  animals  giving  milk.  In  the  cured 
form  they  are  specifically  a  food  for  sheep,  and  the 
ripened  grain  is  unsurpassed  as  a  food  for  swine. 
The  yield  of  the  mixed  crop  in  the  green  form  Is 
seldom  less  than  ten  tons  per  acre,  and  probably 
seldom  more  than  twenty  tons. 

Distribution. — The  common  field  pea  may  be 
grown  in  excellent  form  above  the  forty-fifth  parallel 
of  north  latitude  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
except  in  some  limited  areas  in  the  dry  belt  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains.  As  a  mixed  crop  for  soiling, 
and  even  in  the  unmixed  form,  it  may  also  be  grown 
many  miles  south  of  the  line  named,  at  least  in  certain 
areas.  But  below  the  forty-second  parallel,  the 
fruitage  of  the  plants  becomes  more  or  less  uncertain 
because  of  the  high  temperatures  that  prevail  when 
the  pea  is  in  bloom.  On  high  elevations  the  crop 
is  not  thus  affected,  hence  in  such  situations  peas 
will  produce  abundantly  far  southward.  It  is  found 
at  its  best  in  temperatures  that  are  equable,  and  in 
climates  moist  in  character. 

Soil. — Loam  soils  strongly  impregnated  with 
clay  are  eminently  adapted  to  growing  peas.  They 
may  also  be  grown  with  much  success  on  stiff  clays. 
The  returns  from  sandy  loams  will  be  favorably 
influenced  or  otherwise,  according  as  these  soils  con- 
tain much  or  little  clay.  And  the  same  is  true  of 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  IO5 

the  humus  soils  of  the  prairie.  The  volcanic  soils  of 
the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  and  the  alluvial  soils  in 
many  of  the  river  bottoms  in  Montana,  Washington 
and  Oregon  have  special  adaptation  for  the  produc- 
tion of  peas.  Light,  hungry  sands  are  ill  adapted  to 
pea  culture.  While  the  vines  will  grow  immensely 
in  slough  and  marsh  lands  which  rest  on  clay  not 
far  distant  from  the  surface,  they  do  not  fruit  well 
in  these  places,  since  the  energies  of  the  plant  are  so 
much  directed  to  the  growth  of  vines.  Wrhile  it  is 
not  necessary  that  soils  should  be  very  rich  in  order 
to  grow  peas,  they  must  be  supplied  with  a  fair 
amount  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  and  enough 
nitrogen  to  give  the  crop  a  good  start.  The  rest 
they  will  gather  from  the  air. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — When  peas  are  grown 
alone,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  them  precede  a  crop 
that  requires  much  nitrogen  to  perfect  its  growth; 
for  instance,  a  crop  of  wheat,  since,  as  already  inti- 
mated, peas  are  nitrogen  gatherers.  When  grown 
in  combination,  almost  any  place  in  the  rotation  may 
be  assigned  to  this  crop.  As  it  is  commonly  sown 
early  in  the  season  to  provide  green  food,  and  is  also 
harvested  at  a  correspondingly  early  period,  it  may 
frequently  be  followed  by  a  crop  of  rape  or  fall  tur- 
nips, and  it  may  with  much  propriety  be  followed 
by  a  crop  of  winter  rye. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — This  crop  is  more  com- 
monly grown  as  soiling  food  along  with  oats 
although  it  may  also  be  grown  in  conjunction  with 
other  kinds  of  grain.  Wheat  is  not  considered  as 
good  as  oats  for  being  grown  in  combination  with 
peas,  for  the  reason,  first,  that  it  matures  less  slowly 


IO6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

than  peas,  and,  second,  that  when  fed  as  soiling  food, 
wheat  is  not  relished  by  the  stock  quite  so  highly  as 
oats.  Nor  is  barley,  since  it  ripens  ahead  of  peas, 
and  the  beards  are  objectionable  after  they  have 
reached  a  certain  stage  of  ripening.  Peas  and  oats 
mature  more  nearly  at  the  same  period,  and  as  oats 
stool  more  than  peas  and  wheat,  or  peas  and  barley, 
they  produce  a  food  less  coarse  in  character. 
But  whatsoever  the  combination  fixed  upon,  the 
preparation  of  the  land  is  virtually  the  same,  nor 
does  it  usually  differ  from  the  preparation  that  has 
been  found  best  suited  to  the  growing  of  small 
grains.  Usually  the  ground  on  which  the  crop  is  to 
be  sown  early  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  A  deep 
seed  bed  is  preferable,  since  peas  require  a  deep 
covering. 

As  previously  intimated,  the  fertilizers  most 
needed  for  this  crop  are  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 
But  in  some  instances,  nitrogen  has  to  be  applied  to 
start  the  crop  vigorously.  Farmyard  manure  is  very 
suitable  when  it  can  be  obtained ;  and  on  many  soils 
land  plaster  will  very  much  stimulate  the  growth  of 
the  peas  when  applied  to  the  crop  after  the  plants 
have  grown  some  distance  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  would  be  possible  to  enrich  the  ground 
too  much  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  this  crop. 
When  rankness  in  the  growth  is  excessive,  the  green 
mass  often  falls  down  before  the  bloom  or  head 
appears,  and  when  it  does,  its  palatability  is  mate- 
rially lessened  and  the  difficulty  in  harvesting  is 
increased. 

Sowing. — Various  methods  of  sowing  the  seed 
have  been  adopted,  and  of  necessity  to  meet  the  needs 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 


of  conditions  not  the  same.  Where  the  rainfall  is 
normal  and  the  soil  is  strongly  impregnated  with 
clay,  the  seed  of  the  peas  and  oat  may  be  mixed  and 
deposited  together  by  the  grain  drill.  In  such  soils 
three  inches  would  seem  to  be  a  sufficient  covering. 
But  in  the  black  loams  of  the  prairie,  and  especially 
in  the  absence  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture,  it 
would  seem  to  be  necessary  to  plant  the  peas  more 
deeply.  This  necessity  probably  has  given  rise  to  the 
practice  somewhat  common  in  prairie  areas  of  first 
sowing  the  peas  on  unplowed  land  and  then  burying 
them  four  inches,  and  even  more  than  that,  in  the 
process  of  plowing  the  ground.  The  oats  are  then 
sown  in  some  instances  as  soon  as  practicable,  and 
in  other  instances  several  days  later  than  the  first 
sowing,  and  they  are  buried  less  deeply.  The  second 
method  is  usually  preferable.  When  sod  lands 
have  been  plowed  in  the  autumn,  or  in  the  early 
spring,  and  when  the  furrow  slices  have  been  made 
narrow  rather  than  wide,  and  laid  at  an  angle  of 
about  forty-five  degrees,  the  seed  may  be  broadcasted 
by  hand  and  simply  harrowed  in.  It  will  fall 
between  the  crests  of  the  furrow  slices,  and  the  har- 
row, when  used  properly,  levels  these  and  conse- 
quently buries  the  seed  sufficiently.  But  peas  should 
never  be  sown  thus  on  level  surfaces,  as  the  shallow 
covering  given  to  them  by  the  harrow  will  be  washed 
off  in  a  considerable  degree  by  the  first  shower 
that  falls. 

The  varieties  of  peas  best  adapted  to  soiling 
uses  cannot  be  named,  since  different  conditions  call 
for  different  varieties.  Usually  those  kinds  that  are 
fine  rather  than  coarse  in  stem  are  to  be  preferred. 


108  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

On  soils  with  high  adaptation  for  peas,  the  medium 
varieties  are  to  be  preferred  and  on  soils  opposite  in 
character  the  larger  varieties. 

Nor  can  the  proportion  of  seed  to  be  sown  in 
the  mixture  be  definitely  stated.  On  clay  loams, 
peas  and  oats  are  frequently  sown  in  equal  quantities 
by  measure,  and  with  satisfactory  results.  On  other 
soils  peas  should  greatly  preponderate  in  the  mix- 
ture-, and  yet  again  the  same  is  true  of  oats.  From 
two  to  three  bushels  of  the  mixture  are  sown  per 
acre,  and  in  some  instances  even  a  larger  quantity. 
The  best  method  of  sowing  this  crop  and  the  propor- 
tions of  seed  that  ought  to  be  sown  can  only  be  deter- 
mined for  each  locality  by  actual  test. 

It  will  usually  be  found  that  the  best  yields  will 
be  obtained  by  sowing  peas  and  oats  early  rather 
than  late,  but  to  prolong  the  feeding  period  it  is 
necessary  sometimes  to  sow  at  successive  intervals. 
The  results  will  of  course  be  influenced  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  season. 

Some  few  varieties  of  peas  would  probably 
prove  very  suitable  in  providing  soiling  food,  at 
least  under  certain  conditions  when  sown  alone. 
The  crown  pea  and  the  grass  pea  are  of  this  class. 
Their  straw  is  more  upright  and  branching  than 
other  varieties,  and  in  consequence  is  less  liable  to 
lodge.  These  two  varieties  are  at  least  worthy  of 
being  given  a  trial. 

Cultivation. — When  peas  have  been  grown  alone 
or  in  conjunction  with  some  other  kind  of  grain, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  providing  soiling  food,  har- 
rowing the  crop  once  or  twice  is  the  only  form  of 
cultivation  that  can  be  given  to  it.  A  light  harrow 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  ICX) 

should  be  used.  The  more  weedy  the  soil  and  the 
more  rapidly  the  moisture  escapes  from  it  by  surface 
evaporation,  the  greater  will  be  the  benefit  from 
using  the  harrow.  Harrowing  has  been  found 
particularly  helpful  to  this  crop  when  grown  on 
certain  of  the  soils  of  the  prairie.  If  the  harrow  is 
used  but  once,  it  should  be  so  used  before  the  peas 
have  reached  the  surface.  When  the  peas  have  been 
sown  and  then  covered  with  the  plow,  and  the  oats  or 
other  factor  of  the  mixed  crop  is  sown  later,  the  grain 
thus  sown  may  be  very  conveniently  covered  with 
the  harrow  while  the  first  harrowing  is  being  given 
to  the  pea  crop.  A  second  harrowing  is  seldom  given, 
but  when  it  is  it  should  be  deferred  until  the  plants 
have  become  well  rooted,  and  much  care  must  be 
exercised  in  doing  the  work,  or  the  harrow  will  bury 
too  much  of  the  grain. 

Feeding. — Peas  grown  alone  may  be  fed  as 
soiling  food  to  swine  from  the  appearance  of  the  first 
bloom,  but  the  highest  feeding  value  is  not  obtained 
from  the  crop  until  a  considerably  later  period. 
When  fed  in  combination  with  oats  or  other  grain 
to  cows  in  milk,  the  feeding  may  begin  when  the  peas 
are  in  full  bloom  or  when  the  oats  or  other  grain 
comes  into  head.  The  season  of  feeding  may  be 
continued  until  the  crop  is  nearly  ripe. 

The  scythe  or  the  mower  should  be  used  in  cut- 
ting the  crop,  according  as  the  quantity  to  be  fed  is 
little  or  much.  And  the  method  of  feeding  to  be 
adopted  is  practically  the  same  as  in  medium  red 
clover. 

The  crop  is  easily  handled,  more  so  than  such 
soiling  crops  as  corn  or  cowpeas,  since  it  can  be  so 


IIO  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

conveniently  lifted  with  a  fork  of  suitable  construc- 
tion. Also  it  is  one  of  the  safest  soiling  foods  to 
feed,  since  it  never  produces  bloating  when  judi- 
ciously fed.  When  the  crop  cannot  be  all  used  in 
the  green  form,  the  portion  that  remains  should  be 
cut  and  cured  for  winter  feeding  before  the  grain  in 
the  pod  or  the  ear  has  passed  the  dough  stage.  The 
crop  may  be  mowed  and  cared  for  after  the  manner 
of  hay,  or  when  it  stands  up  sufficiently  well  it  may 
be  cut  with  the  binder.  When  harvested  with  the 
binder,  the  sheaves  should  be  made  small  and  should 
not  be  very  tightly  bound.  When  the  crop  is  very 
badly  lodged,  the  pea  harvester  may  be  used  to  better 
advantage  than  any  other  implement  in  cutting  them. 
The  crop  may  be  fed  in  a  pasture,  in  a  paddock,  in 
racks  in  the  shed  or  in  mangers  in  the  stable. 

THE     COMMON     VETCH. 

Several  species  of  vetches  have  been  grown  in 
this  country,  but  only  one  of  these,  viz.,  the  common 
vetch  (Vicia  sativa)  would  seem  to  have  special 
adaptation  for  being  grown  as  soiling  food.  The 
sand  vetch  (Vicia  villosa*)  has  been  given  a  consider- 
able measure  of  praise  during  recent  years  for  its 
ability  to  furnish  green  food  for  stock,  but  in  the 
judgment  of  the  author  its  highest  use  will  be  found 
when  it  is  grown  as  a  pasture  plant  rather  than  as  a 
soiling  food.  The  common  vetch  is  frequently 
alluded  to  as  though  it  embraced  two  varieties,  viz., 
the  winter  and  spring  sorts,  but  these  were  originally 
probably  one  and  the  same  kind  grown  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year. 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  Ill 

This  plant  has  not  yet  been  given  the  high  place 
in  our  agriculture  which  it  deserves.  As  a  food 
plant  it  possesses  excellent  qualities,  is  less  susceptible 
to  injury  from  frost  than  the  pea  and  is  even  more 
palatable  and  nutritious.  It  can  be  grown  in  various 
combinations,  and  is  capable  of  making  a  second 
growth  in  some  localities,  though  not  in  all,  if  cut 
while  immature.  And  when  the  conditions  are 
favorable  it  can  be  grown  with  much  success  as  a 
pasture  plant,  as  a  soiling  food,  or  as  hay  for  winter 
feeding.  The  relatively  high  price  of  the  seed  has, 
probably  more  than  anything  else,  hindered  the 
growing  of  this  crop  for  soiling  food.  This  should 
not  be  so,  as  in  states  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
vetch,  abundant  yields  of  seed  may  be  obtained. 

The  common  vetch  furnishes  excellent  food  for 
all  kinds  of  live  stock  kept  upon  the  farm.  When 
fed  freely  to  cows  in  milk,  the  yield  is  increased.  It 
has  a  peculiar  adaptation  for  stimulating  growth  in 
lambs  that  are  being  given  a  forcing  diet,  and 
no  kind  of  soiling  food  is  more  highly  relished  by 
swine. 

The  product  will  of  course  vary  much,  but 
when  grown  alone  the  common  vetch  will  run  from 
about  ten  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre.  When  grown  in 
combination  with  other  plants,  the  return  will  be 
influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  combination. 

Distribution. — The  common  vetch  can  be  grown 
with  greater  or  less  success  in  every  state  in  the 
Union  and  in  every  province  of  Canada.  It  makes 
the  most  complete  growth,  however,  in  cool  and 
humid  climates.  The  provinces  of  Canada  from 
Lake  Huron  eastward,  and  the  north  Atlantic  states 


112  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

are  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  plant.  But 
the  highest  adaptation,  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  climate,  is  found  in  western  Washington  and  in 
Oregon.  The  growth  that  is  produced  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  states  is  simply  extraordinary.  The 
summer  climate  of  the  central  and  southern  states  is 
too  hot  for  the  successful  growth  of  vetches  at  that 
season  of  the  year.  But  in  several  of  these  states,  if 
not  indeed  all  of  them,  the  vetch  may  be  grown  with 
greater  or  less  success  when  sown  in  the  fall  and  fed 
in  the  spring.  The  dry  climate  of  the  semi-arid  belt 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river  is  not  well  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  vetches. 

Soil. — The  soil  conditions  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  common  vetch  are  much  the  same  as 
those  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  common  pea. 
Vetches  luxuriate  in  clay  loams  and  can  be  grown 
with  a  fair  measure  of  success  even  on  stiff  clays. 
Infertile  sandy  lands  are  not  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  the  common  vetch,  but  the  sand  vetch  has  much 
power  to  grow  on  these  lands.  The  black  humus  soils 
of  the  prairie,  where  the  clay  content  is  low  or 
entirely  wanting,  will  not  produce  the  best  crops  of 
this  plant.  The  gray  soils  of  the  Rocky  mountain 
valleys  which  produce  rank  peas  will  also  produce 
rank  vetches,  and  with  or  without  irrigation, 
according  to  conditions. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  vetches  are  soil 
renovators,  they  may  be  grown  with  advantage 
before  a  crop  that  requires  much  nitrogen  to  perfect 
its  growth,  as,  for  instance,  wheat;  and  because  of 
their  ability  to  grow  even  on  soils  not  very  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  plant  food.  Vetches  may  be 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  113 

grown  almost  anywhere  in  the  rotation.  They  will 
make  a  good  growth  on  overturned  sod,  but  such 
land  is  usually  wanted  for  the  production  of  crops 
less  able  to  appropriate  plant  food  under  adverse  con- 
ditions. When  sown  in  the  autumn  the  winter  vetch 
can  with  much  propriety  be  sown  after  a  grain  crop, 
and  there  is  ample  time  between  the  harvesting  of  the 
grain  crop  and  the  sowing  of  the  vetches  to  prepare 
the  seed  bed  in  fine  form.  The  vetches  thus  sown 
will  be  reaped  early  enough  to  admit  of  growing 
some  other  crop  that  same  season  on  the  land  that 
produced  the  vetches.  Such  a  system  of  rotation  is 
most  helpful  in  cleaning  land.  When  sown  early  in 
the  spring  the  crop  is  also  consumed  early  enough  to 
admit  of  following  it  with  some  kind  of  catch  crop 
that  same  season.  Winter  wheat  and  winter  rye  fit 
nicely  into  the  rotation  after  spring  sown  vetches. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Since  vetches  are  sown 
sometimes  in  the  spring  and  sometimes  in  the 
autumn,  the  prerise  methods  of  preparing  the  soil 
will  vary  considerably.  On  fall  plowed  land  the 
only  further  preparation  necessary  is  to  stir  the  sur- 
face soil  dneply  enough  to  furnish  a  good  seed  bed. 
On  spring  p!o-,ved  land  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a 
firm  seed  bed  on  the  spongy  humus  soils  of  the 
prairie,  and  to  secure  a  fine  pulverization  on  clay 
soil  that  is  cloddy.  On  land  plowed  in  the  summer 
in  order  to  receive  seed  in  the  autumn,  the  aim  should 
be  to  retain  r/ioisture  in  the  land  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent possible,  by  the  use  of  the  roller  and  harrow  on 
it  after  it  ha'j  been  plowed. 

Fertilizers,  especially  those  rich  in  nitrogen,  are 
less  needed  by  the  vetch  plant  than  by  plants  unable 
8 


114  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

to  gather  the  same  from  the  air.  But  lands  fre- 
quently exist  in  which  the  supply  of  this  element  in 
the  soil  is  so  low  that  the  vetch  plants  sown  on  them 
are  unable  to  make  a  vigorous  start  unless  some 
fertilizer  is  applied  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the 
vetches.  If  commercial  fertilizers  are  added,  pot- 
ash and  phosphoric  acid  are  especially  fitted  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  plants. 

Sow  ing. — The  method  of  sowing  depends  to 
some  extent  on  the  nature  of  the  combinations  of 
seeds  sown.  But  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  the  seed 
with  the  grain  drill,  since,  owing  to  the  globular 
form  of  the  seed, — like  peas — it  is  easily  uncovered 
by  rain  when  it  lies  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  bury  the  seed  so  deeply  as  the 
pea  is  usually  buried.  From  two  to  three  inches 
would  seem  to  be  deep  enough  in  any  soil. 

Vetches  may  be  sown  in  various  combinations 
to  produce  soiling  food.  The  following  include 
some  of  the  more  important  combinations  when 
sown  in  the  spring: — i,  vetches  and  wheat,  oats  or 
barley;  2,  vetches,  wheat  and  peas;  3,  vetches,  oats 
and  peas.  In  figure  13  the  vetches  do  not  show 
though  present  in  quantities  equal  to  the  oats.  And 
the  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  com- 
binations when  the  crop  is  sown  in  the  autumn : — • 
I9  vetches  and  winter  rye  or  winter  wheat;  2,  vetches 
and  winter  oats  or  winter  barley;  3,  vetches  and 
crimson  clover.  But  there  may  also  be  some  in- 
stances where  it  is  preferable  to  sow  the  crop  without 
admixture,  as  when  two  cuttings  are  sought  from 
one  sowing  to  provide  very  tender  food  for  lambs 
or  swine. 


? 
O    'g 


II 


Il6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

The  proportions  of  seed  in  the  combination  that 
will  prove  most  satisfactory  can  only  be  ascertained 
by  actual  test  in  each  locality.  But  the  aim  should 
be  to  make  the  vetches,  to  the  greatest  extent  pos- 
sible, the  dominant  factor  in  the  mixture,  consistent, 
however,  with  the  retention  of  upright  growth 
in  the  crop.  The  other  factor  or  factors  of 
the  combination  are  intended  rather  to  support  the 
vetches  than  to  furnish  food.  When  vetches  are 
sown  with  crimson  clover,  the  seed  of  the  latter 
should  be  used  sparingly  lest  it  crowd  the  vetches. 

The  quantity  of  seed  that  ought  to  be  sown  will 
vary  with  conditions  such  as  relate  to  fertility, 
moisture  and  the  varieties  of  plants  used  in  the 
combination.  But  it  will  seldom,  if  ever,  be  advan- 
tageous to  sow  less  than  one  bushel  of  vetch  seed  per 
acre,  except  when  peas  are  used  in  the  combination, 
and  sometimes  even  more  than  the  amount  of  the 
vetch  seed  named  should  be  sown.  When  the 
vetches  are  sown  alone,  from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
bushels  of  seed  are  used. 

The  best  time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop, 
and  on  the  character  of  the  climate.  Vetches  sown 
in  the  spring  should  as  a  rule  be  put  into  the  ground 
quite  early,  but  in  moist  climates  it  is  admissible  to 
sow  them  later  and  at  intervals  if  necessary.  When 
sown  in  the  autumn  they  should  be  given  time  to 
get  well  rooted  before  the  more  trying  weather  of 
winter  arrives. 

Cultivation. — Harrowing  is  the  only  form  of 
cultivation  that  can  be  given  to  this  crop,  and  when 
all  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  growth,  it  is  not 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 


necessary  even  to  use  the  harrow.  But  there  may  be 
instances  in  which  decided  benefit  will  result  from 
running  the  harrow  over  the  crop  when  it  is  ready  to 
push  through  the  surface  soil,  and  possibly  also  at  a 
later  period.  But  since  the  vetch  is  a  somewhat 
tiny  plant  when  it  first  begins  to  grow,  much  care 
must  be  taken  in  harrowing  the  crop,  or  the  plants 
will  be  buried. 

Feeding.  —  In  climates  that  are  moist,  the  feed- 
ing of  the  vetch  crop  may  begin  at  a  comparatively 
early  period,  since  it  will  make  a  good  second  growth, 
but  in  those  opposite  in  character  the  wisdom  of 
such  a  course  would  be  more  than  questionable. 
Vetches  cut  before  they  come  into  bloom  are  highly 
relished  by  swine.  More  commonly,  however,  the 
cutting  should  not  begin  until  the  blossoms  have  ap- 
peared, and  it  may  be  continued  until  the  crop  has 
reached  an  early  stage  of  maturity.  In  the  later 
stages  of  its  growth,  it  furnishes  very  rich  food,  and 
even  in  earlier  stages  it  furnishes  valuable  food. 
The  crop  may  be  cut  with  the  scythe  or  mower,  and 
may  be  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  peas.  It  is 
more  easily  handled  than  various  other  grain  crops 
since  it  is  sufficiently  adhesive  to  admit  of  being 
lifted  easily,  and  yet  it  is  not  so  adhesive  as  to  make 
it  difficult  to  lift  a  separate  forkful.  When  fed  only 
to  swine  where  a  limited  number  is  kept,  or  to  sheep 
that  are  being  fitted  for  the  show,  it  is  customary, 
and  the  practice  is  a  good  one,  to  sow  the  vetches 
somewhere  contiguous  to  the  farm  buildings  for 
convenience  in  feeding. 

When  it  so  happens  that  more  of  the  crop  is  on 
hand  than  can  be  used  in  the  green  form,  the  surplus 


Il8  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

should  be  cut  at  an  early  stage  of  maturity  and  cured 
for  winter  feeding.  When  thus  fed  it  makes  in 
itself  almost  a  perfectly  balanced  ration  for  some 
kinds  of  feeding.  It  is  particularly  excellent  for 
£ows  in  milk  and  for  sheep.  When  thus  fed,  the 
crop  may  be  conveniently  harvested  with  the 
pea  harvester  which  will  do  the  work  of  cutting 
almost  as  quickly  as  though  it  were  a  hay  crop. 
But  when  the  crop  is  well  supported  by  some 
other  grain  growing  along  with  it,  the  binder 
may  be  made  to  harvest  the  same  with  manifest 
advantage. 

THE    SOY    BEAN. 

The  soy  bean  (Glycine  hispida)  has  only  been 
tested  in  this  country  during  recent  years.  Its 
growth  has  been  confined  to  comparatively  limited 
areas,  hence  but  a  relatively  small  number  of  the 
agriculturists  of  the  country  have  any  knowledge  of 
the  plant,  based  upon  practical  experience.  The  fol- 
lowing facts,  however,  have  been  fairly  well  estab- 
lished in  regard  to  the  soy  bean : 

I.  It  is  not  adapted  to  a  climate  in  which  the 
temperature  is  low  in  summer,  or  in  which  the  season 
of  growth  is  short.  2.  It  is  able  to  gather  the  food 
of  sustenance  in  relatively  poor  land,  although  it  will 
of  course  give  better  returns  from  rich  land.  3.  It 
can  withstand  drouth  and  excessive  wetness  in  the 
soil  better  than  many  other  plants  grown  as  food  for 
live  stock.  4.  The  flowers  are  not  much  liable  to 
injury  at  the  critical  period,  owing  to  peculiarities 
of  structural  development,  hence  they  are  more 
sure  of  fruiting  than  those  of  many  other  food  plants 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 


and  they  also  possess  the  power  of  self-pollina- 
tion. 5.  It  has  much  power  to  draw  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  to  deposit  the  same  in  the  soil  for 
the  benefit  of  succeeding  crops.  6.  It  is  one  of  the 
richest  of  foods  grown  for  live  stock.  7.  It  may  be 
grown  as  pasture,  as  soiling  food,  as  hay  or  as  green 
manure;  it  may  also  be  grown  for  the  grain  which 
it  produces. 

The  soy  bean,  very  often  designated  the  soja 
bean,  is  an  annual  plant.  When  all  the  conditions 
are  favorable  it  will  grow  to  the  hight  of  four  feet 
or  more,  but  the  average  hight  of  the  plants  is  from 
two  to  three  feet.  It  is  branching  in  its  habit  of 
growth,  the  stems  are  somewhat  coarse  and  the 
leaves  are  large  and  fairly  numerous.  The  pods  are 
short  and  broad,  and  each  pod  contains  from  two  to 
five  seeds  which  vary  much  in  color  according  to  the 
variety.  The  yield  of  the  beans  varies  of  course 
with  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  season  and  the  method 
of  cultivation  adopted.  Crops  have  been  grown 
which  produced  as  high  as  forty  bushels  per 
acre,  but  the  average  crop  is  probably  less  than  half 
that  amount. 

The  soy  bean  makes  an  excellent  food  for  cattle 
and  swine,  probably  also  for  horses  and  sheep, 
although  experience  in  feeding  it  to  horses  and  sheep 
is  as  yet  somewhat  limited.  The  green  food  and  the 
hay  are  excellent  for  cows  in  milk  ;  the  same  is  true 
of  the  seeds  when  ground  and  fed  with  some  less 
concentrated  food.  Soy  bean  meal  should  probably 
be  always  thus  fed.  Except  the  peanut,  there  is 
perhaps  no  other  vegetable  product  grown  in  this 
country  which  contains  such  high  percentages  of 


0  3 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  121 

protein  and  fat  in  a  form  so  highly  digestible.  It 
is  considered  superior  in  nutritive  qualities  to  oil 
meal,  and  in  some  tests  that  have  been  made 
it  has  compared  well  with  cottonseed  meal.  But 
the  fact  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  hand- 
ling of  the  crop,  when  grown,  is  more  exacting 
and  laborious  than  the  handling  of  some  other 
soiling  crops. 

The  yield  of  the  green  crop  per  acre  varies  much 
with  the  conditions,  but  usually  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  growing  ten  to  twelve  tons  per  acre  on  average 
land.  But  the  value  of  this  plant  in  producing  food 
for  live  stock  is  measured  less  by  the  yield  than  by 
the  richness  of  the  food. 

Distribution.- — Since  the  soy  bean  is  a  child  of 
the  sun,  it  cannot  be  grown  successfully  in  far  north- 
ern latitudes.  The  highest  adaptation  for  this  plant 
will,  in  nearly  all  instances,  be  found  south  of  the 
fortieth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  that  is  to  say, 
south  of  the  latitude  of  Columbus,  O.,  and  Spring- 
field, 111.  The  varieties  heretofore  introduced  have 
not  been  grown  with  any  marked  success  north  of 
the  line  which  marks  the  southern  boundary  of  Min- 
nesota, or,  in  other  words,  north  of  the  forty-third 
parallel.  This  means  that  in  the  meantime  it  has  no 
important  mission  as  a  food  crop  for  any  of  the 
provinces  of  Canada  or  for  any  of  the  states  that 
border  on  Canada.  But  some  of  the  varieties  at 
present  grown  may  become  so  acclimatized  that  the 
limit  of  successful  growth  may  be  pushed  consider- 
ably further  northward.  The  necessity  for  this, 
however,  would  not  seem  to  be  so  vital  as  further 
south,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  other  green 


122  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

foods  may  be  grown  in  the  northern  states  that  are 
more  easily  managed  than  the  soy  bean. 

In  the  intervening  area  between  the  parallels 
named  the  early  maturing  varieties  only  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown,  and  of  course  with  highest  success 
toward  its  southerly  limit;  and  in  that  part  of  the 
prescribed  area  which  lies  in  the  Mississippi  basin 
the  crops  will  be  superior  to  those  grown  in  other 
portions  of  the  same,  and  chiefly  for  the  reason  that 
the  summer  temperatures  in  the  said  basin  are  rela- 
tively high.  While  the  soy  bean  will  grow  well  in 
the  hot  summer  temperatures  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tain valleys  under  irrigation  it  is  not  so  much  needed 
in  them  because  of  the  luxuriance  with  which  other 
legumes  may  be  grown  that  are  more  easily  handled. 
The  climate  of  the  Pacific  slope  west  of  the 
Cascade  mountains  is  ill  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
the  soy  bean. 

Soil. — The  soy  bean  will  thrive  at  least  meas- 
urably well  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  providing  this 
soil  has  in  it  a  liberal  supply  of  potash,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime.  It  will,  however,  thrive 
best  on  soils  which  may  be  termed  medium  in 
texture.  Nearly  all  classes  of  soils  found  on  the 
open  prairie  have  high  adaptation  for  the  growth 
of  this  plant,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all  soils 
that  will  produce  good  crops  of  Indian  corn.  It  may 
be  successfully  grown  on  land  too  low  in  fertility  to 
produce  clover  or  cowpeas.  Instances  are  recorded 
in  which  plants  have  been  grown  in  disintegrated 
trap  rock  and  in  coal  ashes,  and  yet  some  of  the  light 
soils  of  the  southern  states  may  be  so  deficient  in 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  and  even  nitrogen,  as  to 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  123 

make  it  worth  while  to  apply  those  ingredients  before 
planting  the  crop.  Nor  should  it  be  planted  on  soils 
in  which  hardpan  comes  near  the  surface,  since  in 
such  instances  the  roots  which  naturally  feed  deeply 
could  not  easily  penetrate  the  soil.  Swamp  lands, 
well  drained,  produce  an  abundant  growth,  especially 
of  stems  and  leaves,  hence  these  are  specially  adapted 
to  growing  soy  beans  for  soiling  food. 

Even  peat  soils,  under  certain  conditions,  may 
be  made  to  produce  paying  crops,  and  owing  to  the 
excellent  drouth-resisting  properties  of  the  plant,  it 
may  be  grown  on  soils  too  deficient  in  moisture  for 
the  successful  growth  of  the  cowpea.  But  it  is  not 
wise  to  grow  it  on  soils  already  rich  in  nitrogen.  To 
do  so  would  be  a  waste  of  that  very  important  ele- 
ment of  fertility. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  the  soy  bean  must 
be  grown  in  warm  weather,  where  it  is  to  be  grown 
at  all,  its  place  in  the  rotation  is  all  the  more  easily 
defined.  Since  the  soy  bean  may  be  grown  with 
highest  success  when  given  cultivation,  it  should  gen- 
erally be  grown  as  a  cleaning  crop;  since  it  is  a 
legume  and  has  much  power  to  increase  the  nitrogen 
content  in  the  soil,  it  should  precede  grain  crops; 
and  since  it  can  make  progress  amid  heat  and  during 
dry  weather  it  may  frequently  be  grown  as  a  catch 
crop.  It  will,  therefore,  naturally  follow  such  crops 
as  have  been  grown  in  southern  latitudes  to  provide 
autumn,  winter  and  early  spring  pasture,  as  winter 
rye,  winter  oats  and  winter  barley;  and  this  plant 
may  be  made  to  follow  grain  crops  that  have  been 
harvested  at  maturity,  as,  for  instance,  rye,  winter 
wheat  or  winter  oats;  and  it  may  even  be  made  to 


124  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

follow  spring  grain  that  has  been  matured,  providing 
there  is  yet  moisture  enough  in  the  soil  to  bring  about 
successful  germination  in  the  seed.  The  ground 
does  not  as  a  rule  of  necessity  require  to  be  plowed 
when  preparing  it  for  the  grain  crop  that  is  next  to 
be  sown,  since  the  bean  crop  generally  leaves  it  in 
a  loose  condition. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Since  the  soy  bean  is  fre- 
quently grown  as  a  catch  crop,  the  seed  bed  for  it 
must  in  such  instances  be  prepared  with  dispatch. 
This  calls  for  a  free  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller 
after  the  land  has  been  plowed.  But  it  may  not  be 
necessary  in  all  instances  to  plow  the' land  when  pre- 
paring it  for  soy  beans.  The  surface  should  be  made 
smooth  and  fine  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  When 
the  soy  bean  crop  is  the  only  plant  to  be  sown  on  the 
ground  for  the  season,  a  fine  opportunity  is  furnished 
for  freeing  the  land  in  a  single  season  from  the  pres- 
ence of  many  kinds  of  noxious  weeds.  This  may 
be  done  in  part  by  plowing  the  land  for  the  soy  bean 
crop  in  the  autumn  or  in  the  early  spring  and  then 
running  the  harrow  over  the  same  as  often  as  the 
weeds  begin  to  grow  until  the  beans  are  planted. 
The  subsequent  cultivation  given  to  the  crop  will  tend 
to  complete  the  cleaning  process  so  well  begun 
before  the  planting  of  the  same.  It  is  not  usual  to 
apply  any  fertilizer  when  growing  this  crop,  but  as 
previously  intimated,  it  may  be  necessary  in  some 
instances  to  apply  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  or  lime,  if 
not  indeed  all  three  of  these  ingredients. 

^Sowing. — When  designed  for  soiling  uses,  the 
soy  bean  should  be  planted  in  rows  and  usually  with 
the  corn  planter,  the  bean  planter  or  the  grain  drill. 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  125 

The  distance  between  the  rows  will  vary  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  soil,  the  variety  of  the  bean 
and  the  date  of  planting.  The  extremes  of  distance 
may  be  placed  at  about  twenty- four  and  forty  inches 
and  the  mean  distance  at  thirty  inches.  When 
grown  for  seed,  the  distance  should  be  more  than 
when  the  crop  is  grown  to  provide  green  food  or  hay. 
The  variety  planted  will  depend  on  such  conditions 
as  soil,  climate  and  the  uses  for  which  the  crop  is 
grown.  As  a  rule,  what  are  known  as  the  dwarf 
varieties  are  preferred  for  grain  production  in  the 
north  and  the  medium  varieties  are  preferred  in  the 
south.  Of  the  former  the  Early  Dwarf  is  a  favorite 
and  of  the  latter  the  Medium  Early  Green.  The  last 
named  variety  has  proved  satisfactory  when  grown 
as  soiling  food  as  far  north  as  Amherst,  Mass.  The 
Medium  Early  Black  is  also  in  favor  in  many  locali- 
ties. It  is  almost  impossible,  however,  to  give  the 
names  of  varieties  with  precision  at  the  present  time, 
as  the  same  variety  is  frequently  spoken  of  under 
different  names.  The  large  varieties  are  adapted 
only  to  situations  in  which  a  long  period  of  growth 
can  be  given  to  them.  The  medium  varieties  will 
frequently  mature  under  normal  conditions  in  from 
ninety  to  one  hundred  days,  but  oftentimes  they 
require  a  longer  season  in  which  to  complete  their 
growth.  When  growing  this  crop,  much  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  variety  chosen.  Many  of  the 
failures  in  attempting  to  introduce  the  crop  have 
resulted  from  the  planting  of  varieties  not  suited  to 
the  conditions  of  the  locality. 

Considerably  more  seed  is  used  in  growing  the 
:rop  when  it  is  to  be  fed  in  the  green  form  than  in 


126  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

growing  it  for  the  grain.  From  about  sixteen  to 
twenty- four  quarts  will  suffice  for  the  latter  purpose, 
while  not  less  than  thirty-two  quarts  are  usually 
sown  to  provide  green  food.  Some  growers  favor 
thick  planting  to  encourage  an  upright  and  tall  rather 
than  a  branching  growth,  because  of  the  greater 
ease  with  which  plants  of  the  former  type  can  be 
harvested. 

The  soy  bean  should  never  be  planted  until  the 
arrival  of  warm  settled  weather,  and  the  planting 
may  proceed  as  long  as  there  is  a  reasonable  hope 
of  sufficiently  maturing  the  crop  before  the  autumn 
frosts  arrive.  In  Kansas,  for  instance,  crops  planted 
on  wheat  stubble  in  July  have  been  matured. 

Cultivation. — Wherever  the  soil  does  not  lift 
with  the  wind,  the  roller  should  both  precede  and 
follow  the  planting  of  soy  beans,  unless  where  mois- 
ture is  abundantly  present.  The  cultivation  given 
should  of  course  be  generous  and  prompt,  since  the 
beans  grow  so  quickly  that  this  work  cannot  be  very 
long  continued.  In  some  instances  it  is  possible  to 
use  a  harrow  on  the  land  between  the  time  of  plant- 
ing the  seed  and  the  appearing  of  the  young  plants 
above  the  surface.  The  instances  are  also  frequent 
in  which  the  harrow  may  be  driven  over  the  ground 
with  much  advantage  to  the  plants  after  they  have 
got  four  or  five  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  but  it  should  be  driven  along  rather  than 
across  the  rows  to  prevent  the  horses  from  treading 
down  the  plants.  But  when  the  harrow  is  so  used, 
the  teeth  should  be  set  with  a  backward  slant. 

Feeding. — When  the  crop  is  grown  for  the  seed 
it  may  be  cut  to  much  advantage  with  a  self  rake 


*  I 
I  i 


I 


128  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE   SILO. 

reaper.  But  when  grown  for  soiling  or  for  hay  it 
is  more  commonly  cut  with  the  mower.  When  fed 
green,  the  cutting  may  begin  as  soon  as  the  period 
of  early  bloom,  and  it  may  continue  until  the  crop 
is  sufficiently  matured  for  making  hay.  When  cut 
for  hay,  the  seeds  should  be  about  half  grown  in  the 
pods.  If  the  cutting  be  deferred  to  a  later  period, 
many  of  the  leaves  will  drop  off  and  the  stems  will 
become  woody.  Any  excess  in  the  crop  of  green 
food  should  be  cut  for  hay  rather  than  allowed 
to  ripen. 

Since  the  yield  of  seed  from  crops  thus  grown 
will  not  be  abundant,  the  crop  should  not  be  allowed 
to  wilt  overmuch  when  it  is  fed  green,  lest  there 
should  be  some  loss  from  the  leaves  dropping  off. 
The  method  of  feeding  is  much  the  same  as  that 
followed  in  feeding  peas.  When  soy  beans  are  fed 
to  swine,  the  season  of  feeding  may  be  continued 
until  the  crop  is  matured.  But  it  is  more  common 
to  allow  the  swine  to  gather  the  seeds  for  themselves 
when  the  crop  has  reached  an  advanced  stage  of 
maturity. 

THE    COWPEA. 

The  cowpea  (Dolichos  Chinensis)  has  been 
grown  for  many  years  in  the  south,  hence  it  has  long 
since  been  carried  past  what  may  be  termed  the 
experimental  stage  of  growth.  It  is  fast  coming  to 
be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  factor  in  any  system 
of  cultivation  that  can  be  adopted  in  the  southern 
states  and  which  is  likely  to  prove  eminently  suc- 
cessful. Its  great  value  to  the  farmers  of  the  south 
arises  from,  I,  its  ability  to  grow  on  poor  soils;  2, 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  1 29 

its  power  to  grow  under  adverse  conditions;  3,  its 
great  value  as  a  pasture  and  a  fodder  plant  for  live 
stock ;  4,  the  magnificent  service  which  it  renders  to 
the  soil  when  plowed  under  as  a  green  manure. 
There  are  but  few  places  in  the  entire  south  where 
the  land  is  tillable  in  which  this  plant  may  not  be 
grown  with  more  or  less  success.  The  proper  use 
of  the  cowpea  and  of  its  complement,  the  soy  bean, 
to  the  greatest  extent  possible,  would  revolutionize 
the  agriculture  of  large  areas  in  the  south,  where  the 
soil  is  sandy  and  lacking  in  fertility. 

The  cowpea  furnishes  excellent  pasture  for  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  swine,  but  when  pastured  by  cattle 
the  waste  of  vines  is  greater  than  when  fed  as  soiling 
food.  It  also  furnishes  good  hay,  when  properly 
cured  for  horses,  cattle  and  sheep.  But  it  is  not  as 
easily  handled  as  the  common  field  pea  in  the  north, 
nor  is  it  so  easily  cured.  The  grain  is  also  excellent 
for  milk  production  and  for  growing  swine.  Its 
use  for  these  purposes  in  the  form  of  meal  has  not 
become  general,  owing  first,  to  the  considerable 
labor  involved  in  handling  the  crop,  because  of  the 
long  and  intertwining  nature  of  the  growth  in  many 
of  the  varieties  grown,  and,  second,  because  of 
the  incomplete  machinery  for  harvesting  the  crop 
in  the  best  manner  possible.  There  would  seem 
to  be  no  valid  reason  why  the  pea  harvester 
should  not  be  generally  used  in  harvesting  the 
cowpea. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  figures  that  would 

represent  the  average  yields  of  the  crop  per  acre  in 

the  green  form,  owing  to  the  many  varieties  that  are 

grown  and  to  the  great  difference  in  the  habits  of 

9 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 


growth  in  these.  With  the  large  varieties  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  grow  twenty  tons  per  acre,  but  the 
average  will  be  much  less  than  that  amount. 

Distribution.  —  The  northerly  limit  of  successful 
growth  in  the  cowpea  would  seem  to  be  the  southerly 
limit  of  successful  growth  in  the  common  field  pea. 
The  line  which  forms  this  border-land  of  high  devel- 
opment will  run  irregularly  across  the  continent,  but 
it  is  not  far  distant  from  the  fortieth  parallel.  The 
cowpea  has  been  grown  in  the  northern  areas  of 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio  and  even 
in  Connecticut,  but  in  these  localities  the  aim  is  rather 
to  grow  it  as  a  soil  renovator  and  to  a  less  extent  as 
a  soiling  food  than  as  a  grain  crop.  In  the  southern 
half  of  the  states  named,  Connecticut  excepted,  it  is 
grown  by  many  farmers,  but  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  completest  development  in  the  large 
varieties  is  found  further  to  the  southward,  as  far 
south  probably  as  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis  in  Mis- 
souri, that  is  to  say,  south  of  the  thirty-eighth  parallel. 

In  the  warm  valleys  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
the  cowpea  will  doubtless  grow  vigorously  under 
irrigation,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  come  into  general 
favor  in  these  areas,  because  of  the  presence  of  alfalfa 
in  so  great  abundance,  and  yet  in  the  more  southerly 
of  these  valleys,  it  may  come  to  be  grown  extensively 
to  provide  a  grain  eminently  suited  to  the  finishing 
of  pork  reared  upon  alfalfa.  When  thus  grown, 
swine  could  be  made  to  harvest  the  crop  where  it 
grew.  But  in  these  valleys  it  is  not  at  all  probable 
that  the  cowpea  will  soon  be  produced  as  a  soiling 
food.  In  Canada  and  in  the  states  bordering  on 
that  country,  any  variety  of  the  cowpea  that  has  been 


132  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

introduced  has  not  been  grown  with  highest  success, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  western  slope  of  Oregon. 
But  recent  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  at 
the  Minnesota  experiment  station  have  been  decid- 
edly encouraging.  They  were  made  with  such 
varieties  as  the  Early  Black  and  the  Red  Ripper. 

Soils. — Soils  that  are  suitable  for  growing  soy 
beans  are  also  suitable  in  nearly  all  instances  for 
growing  cowpeas.  (see  Page  122).  Loam  soils 
and  more  especially  clay  loams,  will  produce  the 
largest  crops.  Fairly  good  crops  may  be  grown 
on  soils  too  low  in  fertility  to  produce  good  crops 
of  grain. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — As  with  other  legumes, 
the  aim  should  be  to  grow  the  cowpea  so  that  it  will 
prove  a  renovating  crop  to  the  soil.  It  should, 
therefore,  come  as  a  rule  between  two  grain  crops. 
But  it  may  also  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop,  where 
a  crop  previously  grown  has  failed;  or  it  may  be 
grown  as  an  intermediate  crop  after  a  crop  has  been 
harvested  and  before  another  autumn  or  winter  crop 
has  been  sown.  The  cowpea  can  be  grown  with 
much  satisfaction  on  land  from  which  early  vege- 
tables have  been  removed  and  also  after  a  crop  of 
such  fruits  as  strawberries.  It  is  also  grown  on 
soils  that  have  become  too  unproductive  for  success- 
ful cropping  with  grain.  When  thus  grown  it  is 
usually  plowed  under  to  renovate  the  soil,  but  even 
though  the  crop  be  used  for  soiling  purposes  or  for 
hay,  or  even  though  it  be  matured  for  its  grain 
product  it  will  still  leave  the  land  in  a  much  better 
condition  as  to  fertility  than  before  the  crop  was 
grown  on  it. 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  133 

Although  cowpeas  will  grow  luxuriantly  on 
overturned  sod  lands,  it  will  usually  be  a  mistake  to 
grow  them  on  these,  as  the  vegetable  matter  which 
they  contain  may  be  turned  to  excellent  account  in 
growing  grain  crops.  But  it  may  be  wise  in  some 
instances  to  grow  cowpeas  after  crimson  clover,  in 
the  hope  of  further  enriching  the  land  for  the  next 
crop.  The  cowpea  is  also  frequently  sown  among 
the  cotton  and  corn  plants  while  they  ere  yet  imma- 
ture. In  latitudes  far  south,  one  crop  of  cowpeas 
may  be  grown  for  soiling  uses  if  cut  early  and 
a  second  crop  from  the  same  plants  for  being 
plowed  under. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
the  cowpea  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  fine  and  a 
moist  seed  bed.  The  roller  and  harrow,  if  judiciously 
used,  may  be  made  greatly  helpful  in  securing  both, 
and  more  especially  after  the  arrival  of  the  dry  sea- 
son. When  sown  after  garden  crops,  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  plow  the  land,  but  simply  to  disk  and 
harrow  it. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  apply  nitrogen  to  the 
soil  in  which  this  crop  is  grown,  but  in  some  instances 
it  is  necessary.  Since  the  cowpea  takes  considerable 
quantities  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  out  of  the 
soil  and  since  it  does  not  restore  these  when  the 
crop  is  removed  from  the  soil  on  which  it  grew, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  brings  them  up  from  the  sub- 
soil, the  fertilizers  applied  should  contain  these  ele- 
ments in  liberal  degree.  It  will  be  in  order,  there- 
fore, to  apply  such  fertilizers  as  ground  bone,  bone 
ash,  fish  guano  and  superphosphate  when  fertilizers 
are  needed.  Farmyard  manure  will  usually  give 


134  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

excellent  results,  but  it  can  seldom  be  spared  for  the 
crop  of  cowpeas. 

Sowing. — Cowpeas  are  commonly  sown  with 
the  grain  drill.  If  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with 
the  harrow,  and  rain  should  fall  soon  after  the  crop 
has  been  sown,  many  of  the  peas  will  lie  upon  the 
surface  and  will  fail  to  sprout.  When  sown  for 
pasture,  all  the  drill  tubes  are  used  in  sowing  the 
seed,  but  when  the  land  is  measurably  clean  and  the 
other  conditions  are  favorable,  it  may  be  advanta- 
geous to  sow  only  with  alternate  tubes.  The  same 
mode  of  sowing  is  sometimes  adopted  when  the  crop 
is  sown  for  soiling  uses  or  for  the  production  of  hay 
or  grain.  But  when  ground  is  to  be  cleaned,  or  when 
moisture  is  not  abundant,  the  crop  ought  to  be  drilled 
in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  cultivation. 
With  the  large  varieties  these  rows  may  in  some 
instances  be  made  as  distant  from  one  another  as 
thirty  inches,  and  even  thus  far  distant,  the  vines 
will  in  time  completely  cover  the  ground.  But  the 
distance  between  the  rows  must  be  measurably  deter- 
mined by  the  variety  of  the  peas  and  convenience  in 
cultivating  them. 

In  growing  this  crop  for  soiling  food,  it  will 
oftentimes  prove  advantageous  to  sow  the  seed  of 
some  other  forage  plant  along  with  them,  as,  for 
instance,  millet,  sorghum,  or  Kaffir  corn.  These 
plants  help  to  sustain  the  peas  and  consequently  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  vines  and  to  increase  the 
quantity  of  the  grain.  Kaffir  corn  is  very  suitable 
for  being  grown  thus,  owing  to  the  stiff  growth  of 
stem  which  it  sends  upward  and  to  its  power  to 
grow  in  dry  weather.  About  ten  pounds  of  seed 


OTHER  LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.  135 

will  usually  be  sufficient  to  mix  with  one  bushel 
of  the  peas. 

The  quantity  of  peas  that  should  be  sown  wilt 
depend  chiefly  on  the  objects  sought  in  sowing.  But 
more  seed  will  be  required  of  the  large  varieties  and 
by  soils  low  in  fertility.  From  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  bushels  are  usually  sown  when  the  crop  is  to  be 
pastured  or  plowed  under.  In  a  majority  of 
instances,  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  will  suffice  to 
grow  soiling  food  or  hay.  When  cultivation  is  to 
be  given  between  the  rows,  the  quantity  of  seed 
required  will  be  proportionately  reduced. 

When  the  crop  is  to  be  plowed  under,  the  large 
and  late  maturing  varieties  ought  usually  to  be  sown 
in  the  southern  but  not  in  the  northern  states.  The 
Wonderful,  sometimes  called  Unknown,  is  one  of 
the  best  of  these.  But  when  soiling  food,  hay  or 
grain  is  sought,  the  kinds  known  as  "bunch"  varie- 
ties— that  is  to  say,  branched  and  bush-like  rather 
than  vine-like — should  usually  be  sown.  They  are 
more  productive  of  grain  than  the  former  and  are 
more  easily  harvested.  The  best  of  these,  especially 
for  northerly  latitudes,  are  the  Whippoorwill,  the 
Early  Black,  the  Red  Ripper  and  the  Black  Eye. 
The  Clay  variety  is  in  favor  farther  south.  But 
there  is  yet  some  confusion  in  the  various  names 
applied  to  the  cowpea. 

If  cowpeas  are  sown  before  the  weather  and 
soil  are  warm,  the  seed  will  rot  in  the  ground,  or 
the  plants  will  start  so  feebly  that  they  will  not  grow 
subsequently  into  a  vigorous  crop.  After  the  corn 
has  been  planted  it  will  be  sufficiently  early  to  plant 
cowpeas.  In  latitudes  far  south  they  can  be  sown 


136  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

even  months  later,  but  not  in  the  north.  The  bunch 
varieties  will  often  mature  in  ninety  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  days  from  the  time  of  planting. 

Cultivation. — Whether  cowpeas  are  sown  broad- 
cast by  hand,  by  the  grain  drill  with  all  the  tubes  in 
use  or  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  subse- 
quent cultivation,  the  harrow  may  in  many  instances 
be  used  with  advantage  before  the  plants  push  up 
through  the  surface  of  the  soil.  A  light  harrow  may 
also  be  used  when  the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches 
above  the  surface,  and  more  especially  when  the 
peas  are  planted  in  rows  so  that  subsequent  cultiva- 
tion can  be  given  to  them,  as  then  the  horses  may 
be  driven  along  the  rows  when  drawing  the  harrow 
so  as  not  to  tread  down  the  peas. 

When  subsequent  cultivation  is  given  between 
the  rows,  it  must  be  done  with  promptness,  as  the 
peas,  owing  to  the  vine-like  character  of  their  growth 
will  soon  lie  along  upon  the  land  and  so  preclude 
further  cultivation.  When  strong  weeds  of  a  nox- 
ious character  infest  the  line  of  the  rows  they  ought 
to  be  removed  if  they  are  likely  to  mature  their  seeds 
before  the  peas  are  harvested.  Due  attention  should 
be  given  to  this  particular,  whatsover  the  kind  of 
crop  that  is  being  grown. 

Feeding. — The  feeding  of  cowpeas  may  begin 
as  soon  as  the  first  bloom  appears.  When  cut  thus 
early  the  crop  will  grow  up  again,  though  not  under 
all  conditions,  and  may  be  cut  a  second  time  if  the 
growth  will  justify  using  it  thus.  A  second  advan- 
tage from  early  cutting  is  found  in  the  greater  ease 
with  which  the  green  food  may  be  handled  when  it 
is  being  fed,  since  the  intertwining  of  the  vines  is 


1! 
i  I 

s  i 


138  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

not  so  pronounced  as  at  a  later  period.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  at  the  period  of  early  bloom  the 
plants  have  not  nearly  reached  that  stage  when  they 
possess  a  maximum  of  nutrition.  The  feeding  may 
be  continued  until  the  crop  is  nearly  mature.  Any 
residue  not  wanted  for  green  food  may  be  cut  and 
cured  for  hay.  When  the  major  portion  of  the  pods 
contain  peas  more  than  half  grown,  the  crop  is  ready 
for  being  cut  for  hay.  It  may  also  be  harvested  for 
the  grain  as  soon  as  one-half,  or  more  than  that,  of 
the  pods  are  fully  ripe.  The  ripening  of  the  pods, 
as  with  the  common  field  pea,  is  more  or  less  uneven. 

The  cutting  on  a  large  scale  is  commonly  done 
with  a  field  mower.  But  when  the  crop  is  not  in 
any  way  supported  by  another  crop  sown  along  with 
it,  the  mower  very  frequently  leaves  more  or  less 
of  the  peas  uncut.  The  pea  harvester  will  do  the 
work  of  cutting  much  more  cleanly  and  economically. 
Because  of  the  difficulty  of  handling  the  crop  when 
feeding  it  green,  there  is  a  disposition  on  the  part  of 
many  to  allow  the  stock  to  do  the  harvesting.  The 
waste  resulting  is  not  all  loss,  since  the  Soil  is 
enriched  more  or  less  when  the  waste  is  buried 
with  the  plow. 

As  in  feeding  other  green  foods,  this  crop  may 
be  fed  on  a  pasture,  in  a  paddock,  in  sheds  or  stables, 
in  fact,  wherever  it  is  most  convenient. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

PLANTS  OF  THE  BRASSICA  GENUS. 

But  two  plants  of  this  genus  have  heretofore 
been  grown  to  any  very  considerable  extent  on  this 
continent  to  provide  soiling  food  or  pasture  for  live 
stock.  These  are  rape  and  cabbage.  It  is  possible, 
nevertheless,  that  other  plants  of  the  same  genus  may 
yet  be  introduced  that  will  prove  quite  helpful  in  pro- 
viding green  food  for  the  same.  Some  of  these,  as 
kale  for  instance,  have  been  thus  utilized  in  Europe, 
and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  why 
they  should  not  be  so  used  in  some  areas  of  this  coun- 
try, but  until  more  is  known  as  to  their  behavior 
under  American  conditions,  they  could  only  be  dis- 
cussed in  a  speculative  way.  Rape  and  cabbage, 
therefore,  will  only  be  considered  in  this  chapter. 

RAPE. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  rape  (Brassica 
napus,)  but  only  one  of  these,  viz.,  the  Dwarf  Essex, 
has  been  found  possessed  of  sufficient  value  to  give  it 
the  place  of  distinct  precedence  among  all  the  varie- 
ties tried  under  American  conditions.  All  varieties 
of  rape  are  annual,  that  is  to  say,  they  complete  the 
mission  of  life  within  twelve  months  from  the  date 
of  sowing.  But  there  may  be  instances,  as  when 
certain  varieties  are  sown  earl"  one  season,  where 

139 


14O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    T,HE    SILO. 

they  will  not  mature  their  seeds  until  a  later  period 
the  following  season.  The  varieties  which  are 
chiefly  grown  for  seed  only,  and  which  are  used 
principally  in  making  oil,  usually  mature  the  seed 
within  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  days 
from  the  date  of  sowing,  but  those  which 
are  grown  rather  for  pasture  or  for  soil- 
ing uses,  will  not  mature  seed  the  same  season 
they  are  sown.  The  former  are  possessed  of  but 
little  value  as  food  plants. 

The  Dwarf  Essex  rape  bears  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  rutabaga  in  the  first  weeks  of  its  growth.  So 
close  is  the  resemblance  at  this  time  that  it  probably 
would  puzzle  an  expert  to  tell  the  two  plants  apart. 
As  time  goes  on,  however,  the  growth  of  the  rape 
is  more  upright,  and  it  becomes  more  stalky  and  tall. 
Ordinarily  it  grows  to  the  hight  of  eighteen  to 
twenty- four  inches,  but  it  may  be  so  stimulated  by 
fertilizers  as  to  make  it  reach  nearly  twice  that 
hight.  The  root  is  strong,  the  branches  of  the  same 
being  numerous  and  some  of  them  go  a  considerable 
distance  downward  as  well  as  laterally  in  search  of 
food. 

Dwarf  Essex  rape  furnishes  most  excellent 
soiling  food  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Its 
feeding  value  has  been  stated  by  high  authority  to  be 
fully  twice  that  of  clover,  although  chemical  analysis 
does  not  give  to  it  so  high  a  value.  As  soon  as  ani- 
mals become  accustomed  to  it,  they  grow  exceedingly 
fond  of  it.  Its  power  to  produce  milk  when  fed  to 
milk-giving  animals  is  very  high,  and  its  power  to 
produce  fat  is,  in  a  sense,  remarkable.  When  it  is  fed 
to  cows  in  milk,  some  caution  must  be  exercised  as  to 


Fig.  18.    Dwarf  Essex  Rape  Plant 

(141)  Minnesota  University  Experiment  F 


142  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  manner  in  which  it  is  fed,  or  the  milk  will  be 
tainted  more  or  less.  Many  dairymen,  who  send  their 
milk  regularly  to  a  cheese  factory,  feed  it  to  their 
cows  once  or  twice  a  day  after  the  cows  have  been 
milked.  These  dairymen  state  that  no  complaint  has 
been  made  as  to  the  quality  of  the  milk.  But  some 
dairy  authorities  claim  it  should  not  be  fed  to  cows 
giving  milk  at  all,  as  the  danger  of  taint  is  imminent. 
The  truth  will  probably  be  found,  in  this  as  in  so 
many  other  instances,  to  occupy  middle  ground.  If 
the  rape  is  fed  just  after  the  cows  have  been  milked 
and  in  moderation,  while  the  milk  flow  will  be  well 
sustained,  there  will  probably  be  no  perceptible  taint 
in  lire  milk.  But  if  fed  in  excess,  while  the  milk 
flow  will  be  further  increased,  the  milk  will  carry  in 
it  more  or  less  of  the  odor  of  the  green  rape. 

The  yield  of  the  mature  crop  is  proportionate 
to  the  favorable  nature  of  the  climatic  conditions, 
the  richness  of  the  land,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  cultivation  given  to  the  plants.  Ten  tons  an  acre 
is  a  very  moderate  yield.  Twenty  tons  an  acre  are 
frequently  obtained,  and  there  are  instances  in  which 
the  yield  has  been  increased  to  thirty  tons  per  acre. 
When  the  exceedingly  rich  character  of  the  food  is 
kept  in  mind  and  when  this  fact  is  coupled  with  the 
large  yields  that  can  be  obtained,  the  conclusion  is 
legitimate,  viz.,  that  but  few  crops  can  be  grown  that 
will  yield  a  greater  food  value  per  acre. 

Distribution. — It  is  questionable  if  there  is  any 
state  in  the  Union  or  any  province  in  Canada  in 
some  part  of  which  this  food  cannot  be  successfully 
grown  at  some  season  of  the  year.  It  may  with  no 
little  propriety  be  termed  a  cool  weather  plant,  hence 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          143 

the  best  yields  are  obtained  north  of  the  fortieth 
parallel  of  north  latitude.  All  the  states  of  the  Union 
bordering  on  Canada,  and  likewise  all  the  provinces 
of  Canada  bordering  on  the  United  States,  have  high 
adaptation,  though  not  equally  high,  for  the  growth 
of  rape.  In  the  states  further  south  it  ought  to 
be  grown  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  before  the 
weather  becomes  dry  and  hot,  or  in  the  autumn  after 
rain  has  begun  to  fall.  In  mild  winter  latitudes 
this  plant  should  be  made  to  provide  soiling  food 
through  all  or  nearly  all  the  winter. 

Rape  also  grows  in  fine  form  in  the  higher  Rocky 
mountain  valleys  when  it  is  irrigated,  and  sometimes 
in  the  absence  of  irrigaton,  but  the  great  abundance 
of  the  alfalfa  crops  in  these  makes  the  growth  of 
rape  less  essential  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  The 
highest  adaptation  for  this  plant  will  probably  be 
found  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  southern  Oregon  to 
Alaska.  The  humidity  of  the  climate  there  and  the 
mild  character  of  the  season  makes  it  possible  to 
grow  enormous  crops  of  rape. 

Soil. — Rape  will  grow  freely  in  any  soil  that 
will  produce  a  good  crop  of  turnips,  that  is  to  say, 
it  will  make  a  vigorous  growth  in  deep,  moist  loam 
soils,  with  a  considerable  mixture  of  sand  in  them. 
It  will  also  grow  with  even  greater  vigor  in  some 
classes  of  soils  not  well  adapted  to  rutabagas,  as  for 
instance,  the  black  humus  soils  found  in  sloughs, 
and  the  muck  soils  of  marshes,  that  have  been 
drained.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  in 
these,  rape  finds  its  highest  adaptation.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  in  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  soil  found  in 
the  prairies  of  the  west,  also  in  the  sandy  soils  of  the 


144  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Rocky  mountain  valleys  when  supplied  with  mois- 
ture. It  does  not  usually  make  a  good  growth  in 
unyielding  clays,  and  light  infertile  sands  have  still 
less  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  rape  than  stiff  clays. 
It  is  almost  useless  to  sow  rape  on  a  poor  soil.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  yield  of  the  crop  is  likely  to  be 
proportionate  to  the  richness  of  the  land  when  the 
other  conditions  that  relate  to  growth  are  favorable. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  place  given  to  rape 
in  the  rotation  will  in  no  small  degree  be  dependent 
on  the  object  for  which  it  is  grown.  When  grown 
to  provide  pasture  one  can  scarcely  imagine  a  rota- 
tion in  which  it  may  not  with  propriety  be  given  a 
place.  It  is  probably  without  a  rival  in  its  adapta- 
tion for  being  sown  as  a  catch  crop.  But  it  is  rather 
as  a  soiling  crop  than  as  a  pasture  crop  that  its  place, 
in  the  rotation,  is  now  to  be  considered.  Whenever 
the  crop  is  cultivated  it  ought  to  be  made  a  cleaning 
crop,  and,  therefore,  may  be  sown  with  no  little 
propriety  on  land  that  is  foul.  In  all,  or  nearly  all, 
such  instances  it  ought  to  be  followed  by  a  grain 
crop  on  which  grass  seeds  also  are  sown.  But  when 
sown  broadcast,  and  on  many  of  the  rich  soils  of  the 
west,  it  may  be  thus  grown  with  perfect  propriety. 
It  should  only  be  sown  on  land  that  is  measurably 
clean.  This  crop  will  grow  nicely  on  overturned 
sod,  old  or  new,  timothy,  clover,  blue  grass,  or  indeed 
any  other  kind  of  grass,  since  it  is  a  ravenous  feeder 
on  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 

Rape  may  be  made  the  sole  crop  grown  on  the 
land  for  the  season,  or  even  for  soiling  purposes  it 
may  be  made  to  follow  some  other  crop,  as  rye 
pastured  or  barley  harvested,  or  clover  from  which 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          145 

one  cutting  has  been  removed.  When  sown  thus 
late,  in  very  many  instances  cultivation  should  be 
given  to  the  plants  to  stimulate  growth.  When 
sown  after  any  of  these  crops,  the  results  will  largely 
depend  on  the  character  of  the  weather  that  follows. 
There  may  be  seasons  when  the  attempt  to  grow  rape 
in  this  way  will  not  be  successful. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  land  for 
rape  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  fine,  firm  and 
moist  seed  bed,  with  as  much  cleanness  as  can  be 
attained  under  the  circumstances.  When  rape  is  the 
sole  crop  grown  on  the  land  for  the  season,  usually 
the  above  conditions  can  be  attained,  unless  the  crop 
is  sown  very  early  in  the  season.  More  commonly 
they  can  best  be  attained  by  plowing  the  land  in  the 
autumn. 

The  exceptions  are  climates  with  rainy  winters. 
It  being  more  common  to  sow  rape  to  provide  soiling 
food  for  late  summer  and  autumn  rather  than  for 
early  summer  feeding,  a  sufficient  interval  tran- 
spires between  the  opening  of  spring  and  the  sowing 
of  the  crop  to  sprout  many  of  the  weed  seeds  lying 
near  the.  surf  ace  of  the  soil,  and  in  time  to  destroy 
them  by  the  occasional  use  of  the  harrow.  But  when 
the  crop  is  broadcasted  early  in  the  season,  as  is 
often  done,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  it  on  clean 
land.  When  rape  follows  another  crop  harvested 
the  same  season,  the  interval  for  preparing  the  land 
is  'too  short  to  give  opportunity  to  clean  the  same. 
Within  a  few  hours  of  the  plowing  of  the  land  it 
should  be  impacted  with  the  roller,  or  with  the  roller 
and  harrow,  to  keep  in  the  moisture.  This  should 
never  be  omitted,  unless  when  the  soil  is  abundantly 

IP 

• 


146  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

moist.  And  when  the  rape  crop  is  planted  in  drills 
on  such  land  with  enough  distance  between  them  to 
admit  cultivation,  the  said  cultivation,  when  given,  is 
further  very  helpful  to  the  retention  of  moisture,  as 
well  as  to  the  more  vigorous  growth  of  the  plants. 
It  is,  also,  peculiarly  helpful  in  such  a  season  in 
cleaning  the  land.  Rape  should  not  be  sown  in  sum- 
mer weather  on  cloddy  land  as  the  seed  will  not 
germinate  under  such  conditions. 

When  rape  is  grown  for  soiling  food,  the  aim 
should  be  to  secure  all  the  growth  possible.  Hence 
it  should  be  sown  on  land  naturally  rich,  or  made  so 
by  applying  fertilizers.  Rape  has  special  adaptation 
for  being  grown  on  lands  enriched  with  heavy  appli- 
cations of  farmyard  manure.  In  fact,  the  luxuriance 
in  the  growth  of  the  plants  is  usually  proportional  to 
the  degree,  to  which  the  soil  has  been  enriched.  This 
plant  would  almost  seem  capable  of  growing  in  a 
manure  heap.  And  because  of  its  great  power  to 
appropriate  food,  manure  applied  in  the  fresh  form 
would  seem  to  answer  the  end  sought  about  as  well 
as  when  it  is  applied  in  the  reduced  form.  But  to  this 
there  are  some  exceptions.  Manure,  fresh  and  con- 
taining much  litter,  should  not  be  applied  in  great 
bulk,  except  in  rainy  climates,  lest  it  hinder  to  so 
great  an  extent  the  impaction  of  the  soil  as  to  allow 
the  too  rapid  escape  of  moisture.  Slough  and 
swamp  soils  are  oftentimes  so  rich  that  an  application 
of  a  fertilizer  on  these  would  be  thrown  away. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  of  course  helpful  to 
this  plant  when  farmyard  manure  cannot  be  obtained, 
and  also  when  it  can  be  obtained,  but  not  in 
sufficient  quantities.  A  light  application  of  farmyard 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          147 

manure  in  conjunction  with  a  light  application 
of  artificial  fertilizers  is  probably  superior  to  a  heavy 
application  of  either  alone.  On  lands  which  require 
such  treatment  superphosphate  is  oftentimes  drilled 
in  with  the  seed,  but  not  in  too  close  proximity  to  it. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  on  which  rape  feeds  rav- 
enously, are  usually  applied  on  or  near  the  surface, 
and  just  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed  or  later. 
But  in  moist  weather  only  should  nitrogenous  ferti- 
lizers be  applied  on  the  surface. 

Sowing. — Rape  seed  is  sown  by  one  of  two 
methods,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  broadcasted,  or  sowrn  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  cultivation  between 
them.  The  second  method  is  preferable  when  land 
is  possessed  of  only  moderate  fertility,  when  it  is 
foul  with  weeds,  and  when  the  period  of  growth  is 
short.  The  cultivation  stimulates  growth  some- 
times in  a  remarkable  degree,  and  cleans  the  land. 
The  first  method  will  answer  very  well,  however, 
when  the  land  is  reasonably  clean  and  rich,  and  more 
especially  in  moist  climates.  Where  the  seed  is 
sown  in  rows,  these  are  placed  variously  from 
twenty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart,  according  as  there 
is  present  a  prospect  of  an  average  or  more  than  an 
average  crop.  The  stronger  the  growth  the  wider 
apart  do  the  plants  require  to  be. 

In  some  instances  the  drills  are  raised.  In 
other  instances  they  are  made  on  the  level. 
When  raised  they  are  commonly  made  with 
a  double  mold  board  plow  with  a  marker  on  it, 
to  mark  the  line  of  the  next  plow  furrow.  The 
raised  drills  render  cultivation  somewhat  easier, 
more  especially  when  the  plants  are  young.  But 


148  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

where  moisture  is  less  than  normal,  the 
germination  of  the  seed  will  be  much  more  certain  if 
sown  on  the  level.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  in 
raised  drills  by  the  ordinary  turnip  drill,  drawn  by 
one  horse.  Two  rows  are  thus  sown  at  once.  But 
the  hand  drill  can  be  used  in  the  absence  of  a  horse 
drill.  When  sown  on  the  level  the  land  may  be 
marked  out  and  the  seed  sown  with  the  hand  drill,  or 
it  may  be  deposited  with  certain  of  the  grain  drills, 
when  driven  by  a  driver  sufficiently  skilled  to  make 
rows  straight  and  evenly  distant;  varying  widths 
between  the  rows  and  crooked  rows  greatly  lessen 
the  effectiveness  of  the  subsequent  cultivation.  The 
most  perfect  machine  for  doing  this  work  has  prob- 
ably not  yet  been  invented.  The  seed  should  be 
buried  from  less  than  one  inch  to  two  or  even  more 
in  depth,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and 
climate.  When  sown  broadcast  the  seed  may  be 
scattered  by  hand,  or  sown  with  a  hand  grass  seed 
sower.  In  either  instance  it  is  covered  with  the 
harrow,  whether  the  seed  is  sown  in  drills  or  by 
hand,  unless  when  the  ground  is  quite  moist,  it 
should  be  rolled  before  and  also  immediately  after 
sowing  the  seed,  to  hinder  evaporation  near  the 
surface.  Rolling  the  land  thus  in  dry  weather  is 
greatly  important,  but  there  may  be  instances  when 
a  light  harrow  should  follow  the  last  rolling  given 
the  land. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  will  depend 
upon  varying  conditions,  usually  from  one  to  two 
pounds  per  acre  will  suffice  when  the  crop  is  grown 
in  drills.  When  broadcasted  the  quantity  will  vary 
from  three  to  five  pounds  per  acre.  The  first  men- 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          149 

tioned  quantity  will  suffice  when  the  soil  is  rich  and 
clean,  but  when  these  conditions  are  not  present  the 
last  named  quantity  may  be  preferable,  to  admit  of 
harrowing  the  crop  to  some  extent  after  the  plants 
have  made  a  good  start. 

The  time  at  which  this  crop  may  be  sown  varies 
exceedingly.  In  all  climates  it  may  be  sown  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  grain  crops,  and  in  moist  climates 
it  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  end  of  summer.  The 
crop  usually  requires  from  eight  to  ten  weeks  to 
complete  its  growth,  sometimes  however,  a  shorter 
period  will  suffice  and  again  a  longer  period,  is 
necessary.  Keeping  in  mind  this  thought  one  can 
decide  when  the  crop  should  be  sown.  The  early 
sown  crops  may  be  turned  to  excellent  account  in 
providing  pasture  or  soiling  food  for  swine,  when 
clover  does  not  grow  readily.  In  mild  climates  it 
may  be  sown  in  the  autumn.  To  provide  soiling 
food  when  most  needed,  the  seed  is  usually  sown  in 
May  or  June.  But  by  varying  the  dates  of  sowing, 
this  one  plant  may  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food 
almost  without  interruption  from  the  close  of  spring 
to  the  end  of  autumn.  In  the  dry,  hot  summer 
months  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  get  a  stand  of 
plants.  But  even  though  the  seed  should  lie  in  the 
ground  without  germinating  for  weeks,  it  will  start 
up  vigorously  as  soon  as  moisture  reaches  it. 

Cultivation. — When  the  crop  is  broadcasted  the 
only  cultivation  possible  is  to  harrow  it  after  the 
plants  have  obtained  a  fine  hold  on  the  soil.  The 
harrowing  should  be  done  with  much  care.  It  will 
destroy  some  of  the  plants,  but  when  the  seed  has 
been  sown  thickly  enough,  this  will  be  no  real 


ISO  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

detriment  to  the  crop.  A  light  harrow  should  be 
vised,  and  the  harrowing  must  not  be  deferred  until 
the  young  weeds  get  a  firm  hold  upon  the  soil. 

When  the  crop  is  sown  in  rows,  the  cultivation 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  can  be  dis- 
tinctly traced  along  the  line  of  the  row.  It  should 
be  shallow  and  as  frequent  as  once  a  week  or  once 
in  two  weeks,  until  the  tops  of  the  plants  have  so 
reached  out  as  to  preclude  further  cultivation.  The 
harrow  may  also  be  used  with  advantage  in  some 
instances  on  a  rape  crop  sown  in  drills  and  on  the 
level.  When  so  used  it  should  be  drawn  across  the 
rows  and  prior  to  the  cultivation  ordinarily  given. 
The  effect  will  be  to  take  out  myriads  of  weeds  along 
the  line  of  the  row  that  would  otherwise  be  undis- 
turbed. The  plants  will  be  somewhat  thinned,  but 
this  should  not  result  in  the  injury  of  the  crop.  It 
is  not  usual  to  hand  hoe  rape,  not  even  along  the  line 
of  the  row  or  to  thin  it,  but  if  so  treated  the  plants 
will  grow  all  the  stronger.  Whether  the  labor 
would  give  an  adequate  return  will  depend  upon 
conditions.  When  the  cleaning  of  the  land  is  one  of 
the  chief  objects  sought  in  growing  rape  some  hand 
hoeing  should  be  found  profitable. 

Feeding. — The  cutting  and  feeding  of  rape 
plants  may  be  commenced  as  soon  as  they  have  made 
sufficient  growth  to  justify  such  a  course.  More 
especially  is  this  true  of  rape  that  is  to  be  fed  to 
swine  in  the  absence  of  other  green  food.  It  may 
be  cut  and  fed  thus  when  not  more  than  one  foot 
high.  If  not  cut  too  near  the  ground,  it  will  grow 
up  a  second  and  even  a  third  time.  If  mowed 
closely,  however,  the  growth  will  be  much  weakened. 


If  I 

I  5 

W  d 

I  | 

8,  .1 


152  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

More  commonly,  however,  rape  is  virtually  allowed 
to  reach  its  growth  before  the  feeding  is  begun,  and 
it  is  questionable  if  more  or  even  as  much  food  can 
be  obtained  by  cutting  this  crop  once  or  twice  when 
immature,  as  when  it  is  allowed  to  practically  mature 
before  the  feeding  begins.  By  maturity  is  meant, 
in  the  present  instance,  a  stage  when  further  growth 
ceases.  This  point  once  reached,  there  will  likely 
be  greater  or  less  loss  in  hot  weather  before  the  crop 
can  be  fed,  as  the  lower  leaves,  especially,  will  be- 
come yellow  and  crisp,  and  in  some  instances,  the 
plants  will  be  attacked  by  the  white  aphis.  When 
indications  of  such  attack  are  present,  the  crop  should 
be  fed  with  all  haste,  otherwise  it  may  soon  become 
valueless. 

To  avoid  such  risk,  in  hot  weather  it  may  be 
well  to  commence  feeding  the  plants  before  they 
have  completed  their  maturity.  But  in  cool  moist 
weather  a  large  majority  of  the  plants  will  so  retain 
their  greenness,  that  the  feeding  of  the  crop  may  be 
made  to  cover  two  months,  at  least  without  much  loss 
in  food  value.  It  may  be  well  to  mention  here,  that 
any  unused  residue  of  the  crop  in  the  late  autumn 
may  be  cut  before  severe  frosts  arrive,  thrown  into 
heaps  and  fed  from  these,  even  after  the  snow  has 
fallen  to  a  considerable  depth.  But  where  the  cold 
of  winter  is  usually  intense,  this  could  not  be  done 
with  profit.  The  plants  like  those  of  sorghum  are 
slow  indeed  to  spoil  when  thus  handled. 

The  crop  may  be  cut  with  scythe  or  mower 
according  to  the  amount  wanted,  and  if  put  into 
heaps  soon  after  it  is  cut,  in  the  field,  the  feed  yard  or 
the  sheds,  it  will  retain  its  palatability  for  several 


PLANTS    OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          153 

days.  If  the  crop  is  cut  with  the  mower,  better  work 
can  usually  be  done  when  it  has  been  sown  broadcast, 
as  then  none  of  the  stems  lie  so  near  the  ground 
as  to  escape  being  cut.  When  the  drills  have  been 
raised  it  is  not  easy  to  cut  the  crop  with  the  mower. 

Rape  may  be  fed  as  other  green  food,  that  is 
to  say,  on  a  pasture,  or  in  a  paddock,  feed  yard,  shed 
or  sty.  But  care  should  be  taken  not  to  feed  too 
large  a  quantity  at  first;  not  to  feed  when  wet, 
and  not  to  feed  to  hungry  animals  all  they  will  take, 
lest  bloating  should  be  produced,  which,  if  not 
speedily  relieved,  will  almost  certainly  lead  to  the 
death  of  the  animal.  There  is  some  danger  also 
that  scouring  will  be  produced  when  green  rape  is 
fed  in  large  quantities.  The  scouring  is  not  nearly 
so  likely  to  manifest  itself  when  the  stock  is  also 
being  pastured  on  grass  more  or  less  dry,  or  where 
there  is  being  fed  at  the  same  time  a  considerable 
quantity  of  hay.  And  it  is  not  a  little  surprising 
how  much  dry  food,  stock  will  consume  when  being 
freely  fed  on  green  rape.  Nature  seems  to  furnish 
a  craving  for  food  that  aids  in  correcting  the  ten- 
dency to  an  unduly  lax  condition  of  the  bowels  which 
may  have  been  induced  by  feeding  rape.  And  this 
will  be  found  true  also  when  other  kinds  of  green 
food  are  being  fed.  So  certainly  does  this  craving 
manifest  itself  that  it  is  questionable  if  it  would  not 
pay  at  all  times  to  feed  some  dry  food  when  animals 
are  being  fed  an  abundance  of  juicy  green  food. 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  this  plant 
can  be  fed  green  with  much  profit  to  young  colts 
more  especially  after  they  have  been  weaned.  It  is 
equally  good  for  calves  under  like  conditions.  If 


154  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

given  an  abundance  of  green  rape  calves  or  colts  will 
grow  very  quickly  and  will  also  improve  in  flesh.  It 
makes  a  grand  food  for  sheep  being  fitted  for 
the  fairs,  for  weaned  lambs  that  are  wanted  in  good 
form  for  early  selling,  and  for  lambs  that  must  needs 
be  confined  to  avoid  infection  from  parasites  on  cer- 
tain pastures.  When  fed  as  soiling  food,  the  feeding 
can  be  so  regulated  that  the  element  from  bloating 
will  be  completely  eliminated.  Rape  is  also  possessed 
of  peculiar  value  when  fed  as  soiling  food  to  swine. 
When  so  fed  a  large  saving  is  effected  in  grain  food, 
development  is  more  continuous,  and  the  vigor  of  the 
animals  is  better  sustained. 

The  rape  plant  is  oftener  pastured  than  cut  and 
fed  as  soiling  food,  frequently  it  will  be  more  advan- 
tageous to  use  it  in  the  latter  form.  There  is  really 
no  limit  to  the  extent  to  which  this  plant  may  be 
used  other  than  that  which  is  fixed  by  the  desires  of 
the  owner. 

CABBAGE. 

Cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea)  is  probably  seldom 
grown  for  the  express  purpose  of  providing  suste- 
nance for  live  stock.  In  nearly  all  instances  crops  of 
this  plant  are  grown  to  provide  food  for  the  human 
family.  Yet  in  certain  areas  it  may  be  grown  with 
much  advantage  to  furnish  soiling  food  for  various 
classes  of  live  stock.  Because  of  the  great  power 
which  the  mature  plants  have  to  withstand  frost, 
they  will  furnish  green  food  at  a  season  of  the  year 
when  it  can  seldom  be  obtained  from  any  other 
source  outside  of  the  silo.  By  exercising  some  care 
and  forethought  in  storing  cabbage,  as  described 


PLANTS    OF    THE     BRASSICA    GENUS.          155 

under  the  head  of  feeding,  it  may  be  used  as  green 
food  for  several  weeks  after  the  ground  has  frozen. 

But  even  though  the  crop  has  been  grown  chiefly 
as  human  food,  when  the  areas  thus  planted  are 
large,  the  residue  of  the  crop  after  the  heads  have 
been  taken,  is  possessed  of  a  value  for  feeding  uses 
that  will  far  more  than  repay  the  labor  of  feeding 
it  to  live  stock.  This  residue,  though  it  varies 
greatly  in  relative  value,  is  frequently  worth  fully 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  whole  value  of  the  crop,  when 
used  as  food  for  live  stock.  In  growing  cabbage, 
therefore,  the  recommendation  to  "gather  up  the 
fragments  that  nothing  be  lost"  is  peculiarly  fitting. 

Because  of  the  considerable  labor  involved  in 
growing  cabbage  the  crop  is  adapted  to  intensive 
rather  than  to  extensive  conditions.  The  farmer 
having  a  small  farm  located  near  a  town  or  city,  and 
having  on  that  farm  few  animals,  can  usually  grow 
this  crop  to  better  advantage  than  the  man  whose 
conditions  are  the  opposite. 

Cabbage  furnish  excellent  food  for  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  swrine.  It  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1 15.2  and,  therefore,  is  in  itself  almost  a  perfectly 
balanced  food  for  milch  cows.  It  is  not  only  relished 
highly  by  the  various  classes  of  animals  mentioned, 
but  when  fed  to  those  giving  milk,  as  to  cows,  ewes 
and  brood  sows,  it  has  much  power  to  produce  an 
abundant  flow  of  milk.  The  heads  when  chopped 
fine  furnish  a  peculiarly  grateful  and  appetizing  food 
for  young  lambs.  The  yields  obtained  per  acre  are 
in  some  instances  simply  enormous.  Crops  of  forty 
to  fifty  tons  have  been  grown,  but  these  figures  are 
much  above  the  average. 


s   « 

I  § 


PI-ANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          157 

Distribution. — This  crop  is  wide  in  its  distri- 
bution. There  is  probably  no  state  in  our  republic 
and  no  province  in  Canada  in  which  it  may  not  be 
grown,  and  with  considerable  success.  While  it  has 
highest  adaptation  for  cool  and  moist  climates,  it 
will,  nevertheless,  grow  better  relatively  in  warm 
climates  than  rape.  But  in  these  the  enemies  of  the 
plant,  such  as  the  aphis  and  the  cabbage  worm,  are 
much  more  troublesome  than  in  northern  latitudes 
where  the  mean  summer  temperature  is  lower.  This 
crop  may  be  grown  in  best  form  in  the  states  of  the 
Union  which  border  upon  Canada  and  in  the 
provinces  of  Canada  which  border  upon  the 
United  States.  But  excellent  crops  can  be  grown 
under  certain  conditions  in  states  much  further 
south.  In  fact,  there  are  but  few  states  in  the 
Union  which,  in  some  of  their  more  elevated  valleys, 
do  not  furnish  just  the  right  conditions  for  grow- 
ing cabbage. 

Where  the  crop  can  be  successfully  grown  as 
human  food,  it  may  also  be  successfully  grown  as 
food  for  live  stock,  for  the  requisite  conditions  to 
produce  either  crop  are  essentially  the  same.  But  it 
should  be  carefully  observed,  that  because  a  cabbage 
crop  has  given  a  financial  profit  when  grown  for  the 
human  family,  it  does  not  follow  it  will  also  give  a 
financial  profit  when  grown  as  food  for  live  stock. 
Such  an  assumption  would  not,  of  necessity,  be  cor- 
rect, since  it  involves  the  consideration  of  relative 
values  of  cabbage  in  the  market  and  of  meat  and 
milk  produced  by  the  cabbage  when  fed. 

5*0*7. — Cabbage  like  all  plants  of  the  Brassica 
genus  luxuriate  in  a  fertile  soil,  and  more  especially 


158  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

in  one  abundantly  supplied  with  humus.  The 
alluvial  soils  of  narrow  valleys  and  river  bottoms 
furnish  for  them  a  most  congenial  home.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  deep  rich  black  loams  of  the  virgin 
prairie  and  of  slough  lands.  They  also  revel  in  the 
muck  soils  of  swamps  that  have  been  drained.  They 
can  be  grown  on  rich  loams  in  fine  form,  and  good 
crops  can  even  be  obtained  from  clays  of  no  little 
density,  but  not  without  much  labor.  Fair  crops 
can  also  be  grown  on  all  lands  well  adapted  to  the 
production  of  Indian  corn,  but  more  fertility, 
relatively,  is  required  to  grow  a  good  crop  of 
cabbage  than  will  suffice  to  grow  a  good  crop 
of  corn.  The  lands  with  least  adaptation  for 
cabbage  are  those  which  are  light,  leachy  and 
low  in  fertility.  Good  cabbage  soils  are  usually 
if  not  always  underlaid  with  clay,  not  too  near 
and  yet  not  too  distant  from  the  surface.  Good 
crops  may  be  grown  on  upland  soils  naturally 
dry  in  character,  but  only  by  the  aid  of  abun- 
dant fertilizing. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  cabbage  crop  like 
all  other  crops  that  are  given  much  cultivation  should 
be  made  a  cleaning  crop.  It  should  invariably  be 
followed  by  a  crop  of  grain  of  the  non-leguminous 
order,  unless  there  are  good  reasons  for  doing  other- 
wise. The  grain  crop  should  have  grass  seeds  sown 
along  with  it  to  produce  hay  or  pasture.  But  owing 
to  the  peculiar  power  which  cabbage,  in  common 
with  all  plants  of  this  family,  have  to  feed  upon 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  there  is  a  peculiar  fitness 
in  growing  a  crop  of  cabbage  on  overturned  sod. 
Any  kind  of  sod  will  suffice,  but  of  course,  the  more 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          159 

dense  the  better  adapted  it  is  for  the  purpose.  Good 
clover  sod  has  much  adaptation  for  the  production 
of  good  crops  of  cabbage. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  cabbage  is  grown 
specially  for  soiling  food,  late  crops  are  much  pre- 
ferred to  those  that  mature  early.  What  will  now 
be  said  on  the  preparation  of  the  soil  will  have  more 
especial  reference  to  the  growing  of  late  crops.  In 
preparing  the  land  for  this  crop  the  soil  should  as  a 
rule  be  deeply  broken.  To  this  there  may  be  some 
exceptions,  as  for  instance,  when  sod  land  is  over- 
turned but  a  short  time  before  the  crop  is  planted  on 
it,  and  more  especially,  when  the  soil  has  in  it  a 
strong  admixture  of  clay.  The  ideal  treatment 
under  such  conditions  is  to  plow  the  sod  only 
moderately  deep  and  to  follow  the  ordinary  plow 
with  a  subsoil  plow.  The  crop  of  clover  or  grass 
should  be  allowed  to  make  as  much  growth  as 
possible  before  it  is  turned  under.  As  soon  as  the 
land  is  plowed,  the  roler  should  follow  the  plow  as 
closely  as  possible.  The  green  mass  thus  turned 
under  will  begin  to  decay  quickly  and  the  young 
cabbage  plants  will  find  in  it  most  congenial  food  and 
drink.  Good  crops  of  cabbage  may  be  grown  after 
crimson  clover  has  been  cut,  or  even  after  the 
medium  red  has  been  harvested.  The  chief  difficulty 
to  be  met  in  sowing  crops  this  late  is  that  of  sprout- 
ing the  seed,  since  the  weather  at  that  season  is 
usually  dry.  In  other  instances  cabbage  may  be 
grown  with  profit  when  green  rye  has  been  buried 
that  had  been  sown  the  previous  autumn.  But  the 
rye  should  be  buried  while  yet  quite  succulent,  or  it 
will  not  decay  with  sufficient  quickness.  There  may 


l6O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

also  be  occasions  when  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
in  the  fall,  as  for  instance,  when  the  land  is  very  foul. 
It  may  then  be  at  least  partially  cleaned  in  the  spring 
before  the  seed  is  sown.  And  when  old  sod  lands  are 
covered  with  a  dense  turf,  it  may  be  a  good  practice 
to  plow  them  in  the  fall,  to  give  the  roots  more  time 
to  decay  before  the  planting  of  the  crop.  When 
such  lands  have  been  plowed,  the  surface  soil  should 
be  cut  up  deeply  and  finely  by  some  implement 
adapted  to  such  work.  The  roots  of  the  young 
plants  can  then  push  their  way  through  the  soil  much 
more  readily  and  the  decay  of  the  sod  will  be 
much  hastened. 

It  is  not  easy  to  make  the  land  too  rich  for  cab- 
bage by  the  application  of  fertilizers,  but  it  would  be 
easy  to  so  apply  fertilizers  that  there  would  be  waste 
of  the  same.  For  instance,  if  farmyard  manure, 
commercial  fertilizers,  or  both  were  applied  in  excess 
of  the  needs  of  the  crop  on  a  leachy  soil  and  in  an 
area  possessed  of  a  rainy  climate,  much  of  the  excess 
of  fertility  unused  by  the  crop  would  be  washed  out 
of  the  soil  before  the  planting  of  the  next  crop.  That 
the  plants  may  be  abundantly  supplied  with  food, 
and  that  such  waste  may  be  avoided,  the  practice  has 
become  common  when  growing  cabbage  to  apply 
much  of  the  fertilizer  along  and  near  the  line  of  the 
row  where  the  plants  are  to  be  grown.  But  where 
fertility  has  thus  to  be  distributed  with  so  much  care, 
it  is  at  least  questionable  if  cabbage  can  be  profitably 
grown  as  a  food  for  live  stock.  On  many  of  the 
prairies  of  the  west,  especially  in  the  slough  lands  of 
the  same,  enormous  crops  can  be  grown  without  the 
application  of  any  kind  of  fertilizer. 


PLANTS    OF    THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          l6l 

Farmyard  manure  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for 
cabbage,  but  unless  applied  some  time  before  the 
planting  of  the  crop  it  should  be  somewhat  reduced 
before  being  used.  Many  eastern  growers  compost 
farmyard  manure  with  night  soil  and  muck,  or  cer- 
tain forms  of  fish  waste,  and  when  sufficiently  near 
the  sea  they  add  kelp.  Purely  commercial  fertilizers 
will  not  give  returns  so  satisfactory,  in  the  entire 
absence  of  farmyard  manures,  as  when  the  latter  is 
present.  When  both  are  applied  the  manure  is  com- 
monly plowed  in  and  the  commercial  fertilizer  placed 
in  and  near  the  line  of  the  row  which  is  to  receive  the 
seed.  These  fertilizers  are  thus  made  specially  help- 
ful to  the  plants  while  they  are  young  and  the  barn- 
yard manure  is  more  helpful  at  a  later  period.  Such 
fertilizers  as  guano,  superphosphate  with  much 
nitrogen  in  it  and  hen  manure  are  excellent  for  such 
a  use,  and  so  are  wood  ashes.  Cabbage  feeds  freely 
upon  the  three  essential  elements  in  complete  fer- 
tilizers, but  most  freely  on  potash. 

In  any  case,  if  the  soil  is  not  rich  where  a  crop 
of  cabbage  is  to  be  grown,  it  should  be  made  so,  since 
an  ample  supply  of  fertility  not  only  fortifies  the 
crop  against  such  vicissitudes  as  unduly  dry  weather, 
for  instance,  but  it  is  also  necessary  in  order  to  pro- 
duce a  profitable  crop. 

Sozving. — It  is,  at  least,  questionable  if  it  will 
pay  to  grow  cabbage  for  green  food  only,  in  locali- 
ties where  they  cannot  be  easily  and  surely  grown 
by  the  method  of  sowing  the  seed  in  rows  rather 
than  by  that  of  transplanting.  Of  course  it  is  dif- 
ferent when  the  crop  is  grown  mainly  for  the  mar- 
ket, the  residue  only  being  fed  to  live  stock. 
II 


1 62  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

In  some  localities  plants  grow  so  readily  and  so 
surely,  that  the  crop  may  be  grown  by  sowing  the 
seed  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.  It  may  be  thus 
grown  in  many  instances  as  surely  and  easily  as  a 
crop  of  turnips  or  rutabagas.  The  western  and 
northwestern  states  have  special  adaptation  for  the 
growing  of  cabbage  crops  by  this  method.  In  other 
localities  their  insect  enemies  are  so  numerous  that 
it  is  almost  necessary  to  start  the  plants  where  they 
can  be  given  protection,  and  then  after  they  have 
made  a  good  start  to  transplant  them  into  the  field. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  by  first  marking  off  the 
ground,  then  using  a  hand  drill  which  deposits  the 
seed  in  the  line  of  the  marks  that  have  been  made ; 
some  grain  drills  may  be  used  to  sow  the  seed  with- 
out the  seed  beng  mixed  with  anything.  With 
other  patterns  of  drills  it  is  necessary  to  mix  the  seed 
with  some  such  bulky  substance  as  salt.  The  rows 
should  not  be  closer  to  one  another  than  thirty  inches, 
nor  more  distant  than  thirty-six  inches.  The  seed 
should  be  buried  to  a  depth  varying  from  less  than 
one  inch  to  more  than  two  inches,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  A  roller  should  also  in  nearly  all 
instances  be  run  over  the  soil  before  and  after  sow- 
ing the  seed. 

The  late  varieties  are  to  be  preferred,  and  among 
these  the  larger  sorts ;  as  for  instance,  the  Drumhead 
and  Savoy.  The  early  varieties  do  not  grow  suffi- 
ciently large.  They  are  also  lacking  in  an 
abundance  of  leaf  growth,  nor  do  they  keep  so  well 
as  the  large  "and  late  varieties  do.  The  best  variety 
for  each  particular  location,  however,  can  only  be 
ascertained  by  actual  test. 


PLANTS    OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          163 

From  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will 
be  sufficient.  The  first  mentioned  quantity  should 
be  ample  under  average  conditions,  but  it  may  be 
necessary  sometimes  to  sow  fully  twice  that  amount. 

The  time  for  sowing-  the  seed  will  depend  con- 
siderably upon  the  place  which  is  given  the  crop  in 
the  rotation.  The  young  plants  are  somewhat 
tender  for  a  time,  hence  hard  frosts  in  the  spring 
will  destroy  them.  But  they  will  withstand  slight 
frosts  without  harm.  The  seed  should  not  be  sown, 
therefore,  much  sooner  than  the  regular  season  of 
corn  planting.  There  may  be  instances  where  the 
crop  sown  thus  early  will  mature  too  soon  to  best 
serve  the  end  for  which  it  was  grown.  When  plants 
reach  a  maximum  growth  in  hot  weather,  many  of 
the  outer  leaves  wither  and  are  lost  as  food.  Sow- 
ing should  not  be  done  at  a  period  so  late  as  to 
hinder  the  crops  from  making  good  heads,  since  the 
food  value  lies  more  in  the  head  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  plant.  But  this  crop  may,  with  more 
propriety  than  some  others,  be  sown  somewhat  late, 
owing  to  the  great  power  which  it  has  to  continue  to 
grow  in  the  late  autumn, 

Should  the  small  black  beetle  (Epitrix  spec.) 
attack  the  plants  when  young,  they  ought  to  be 
dusted  promptly,  and  while  the  dew  is  yet  on,  with 
air-slaked  lime  and  wood  ashes.  And  should  the 
plants  suffer  later  from  the  attacks  of  the  cabbage 
worm  (Pieris  rapae,  Linn.)  they  ought  to  be  sprayed 
once  or  twice  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  paris  green. 
Paris  green  would  be  the  more  effective  application 
of  the  two  and  there  will  not  be  any  real  danger  in 
using  it  thus  when  the  cabbage  are  not  to  be  fed  for 


164  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

some  weeks  subsequently.  These  remedies  will  prove 
effective  unless  under  extremely  adverse  conditions. 

Cultivation. — The  relation,  between  abundant 
yields,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  cultivation 
that  is  given  to  the  cabbage  crop,  is  both  close  anJ. 
intimate.  As  soon  as  the  young  plants  distinctly 
mark  the  line  of  the  row  the  cultivation  should  begin. 
And  when  weeds  are  superabundant,  if  the  land  is 
stirred  by  the  hand  hoe  close  up  to  the  plants  and 
for  a  short  distance  on  both  sides  of  them,  the  labor 
thus  expended  will  be  amply  rewarded  in  the  more 
vigorous  growth  of  the  plants,  and  in  the  greater 
ease  with  which  they  can  be  thinned.  The  culti- 
vation should  be  frequent  and  should  be  continued 
as  long  as  it  can  be  done  without  breaking  off  any 
considerable  number  of  the  lateral  leaves  of  the 
plants. 

The  thinning  of  the  plants  should  ordinarily 
begin  while  they  are  not  yet  more  than  three  or  four 
inches  high.  If  left  unthinned  for  a  much  longer 
period  they  become  more  or  less  spindling  and  do  not 
produce  so  large  a  head.  But  when  the  cutworms 
are  numerous  it  may  be  well  to  defer  thinning  to  a 
later  period  than  would  be  advisable  in  the  absence 
of  such  an  enemy.  The  thinning  is  almost  entirely 
done  by  the  use  of  the  hoe.  The  individual  using 
it  strikes  forward  and  pushes  backward  as  in  thin- 
ning turnips ;  the  plants  not  wanted  fall  before  the 
hoe.  The  distance  to  which  they  should  be  thinned 
will  depend  upon  the  variety,  upon  the  time  during 
which  the  crop  may  continue  to  grow,  and  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  season.  The  distance  will 
vary,  say,  from  eighteen  inches  to  thirty  inches. 


PLANTS    OF    THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          165 

The  average  may  be  stated  as  twenty-four  inches. 
When  thinning  the  plants,  the  skilled  workman  will 
detect  at  a  glance  a  single  plant  growing  about  the 
right  distance  from  the  one  last  left  to  grow.  He 
can  then  without  hesitation  cut  out  all  the  interven- 
ing plants.  Though  this  single  plant  should  vary 
one,  two,  or  even  three  inches  from  the  exact  distance 
fixed  upon,  it  would  be  better  to  leave  this  plant 
than  to  leave  one  of  a  cluster  in  the  exact  spot,  bat 
from  which  the  plants  around  it  must  needs  be  pulled 
out  by  hand.  And  if  a  blank  should  occur  it  can 
easily  be  filled  during  the  thinning  process. 

The  workman  strikes  his  hoe  downward  into 
the  soil  and  lifts  out  the  earth  above  it.  He  then 
strikes  it  down  beneath  a  single  plant  which  other- 
wise would  be  cut  out  and  lifting  it  up  on  his  hoe 
with  the  adherent  earth  sets  it  down  into  the  hole 
previously  made.  Young  plants  may  thus  be  re- 
moved at  almost  any  hour  of  the  day,  and  without 
much  wilting  of  the  leaves. 

Feeding. — When  the  crop  is  sold  in  the  market, 
the  feeding  of  the  unused  portion  should  begin  at 
once,  the  leaves  being  gathered  with  a  fork  and 
conveyed  directly  to  the  stock,  or  stored  in  a  flat  pile 
for  subsequent  feeding,  not  more  than  a  foot  in 
depth.  If  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  underneath 
a  hot  sun,  they  would  soon  wither  and  entirely  lose 
their  feeding  value. 

But  when  the  crop  is  to  be  fed  in  its  entirety, 
the  plants  may  first  be  cut  off  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground  or  underneath  it  by  the  use  of  a  sharp  hoe 
or  spade.  A  strong  spud  would  probably  do  the 
work  more  effectively  than  either  the  hoe  or  the 


1 66  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

spade,  and  with  more  ease  to  the  operator.  The 
plants  are  then  carted  to  the  feeding  place,  whether 
it  be  in  a  pasture,  paddock,  yard,  shed  or  stable. 

All  classes  of  live  stock  will  devour  the  plants, 
leaving  only  the  woody  stalks,  unless  in  the  case  of 
young  lambs.  For  these  they  should  be  minced. 
When  fed  to  cows  giving  milk,  care  should  be  taken 
lest  too  many  be  fed,  and  the  cabbage  should  be 
given  just  after  each  milking.  When  thus  fed  to 
milch  cows  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  whole 
ration  may  consist  of  cabbage  without  imparting 
to  the  milk  any  disagreeable  taint.  Every  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  feeding  cabbage  leaves 
which  are  partly  decayed  to  cows  giving  milk,  or 
most  unpleasant  odors  will  arise  in  the  milk. 

The  feeding  of  the  crop  may  begin  as  soon  as 
it  is  mature  or  a  little  previous  to  maturity.  The 
feeding  may  continue  without  interruption  until  the 
crop  is  entirely  consumed.  If  winter  threatens  to 
close  in  before  the  crop  has  been  all  fed,  it  should  at 
once  be  carted  to  some  place  convenient  for  feeding, 
and  also  sheltered  from  the  cold  winds,  as  by  the 
side  of  a  straw  stack,  and  there  piled  up  if  need  be 
several  feet  deep  and  then  covered  with  straw.  The 
feeding  from  this  pile  may  go  on  without  interrup- 
tion until  the  crop  is  consumed.  The  duration  of 
such  feeding,  however,  is  largely  affected  by  climate. 
In  latitudes  where  the  winters  are  mild,  cabbage  may 
be  stored  for  future  feeding  by  stacking  them  in  the 
form  of  a  ridge  roof  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
or  from  some  distance  below  it,  and  may  be  covered 
with  one  or  two  feet  of  straw,  rough  litter,  or  marsh 
hay,  according  as  one  or  the  other  of  these  may  be 


PLANTS     OF     THE     BRASSICA     GENUS.          l6/ 

convenient.  To  economize  space  it  will  be  well  to 
break  off  the  outer  leaves  before  the  plants  are  thus 
stacked  with  the  heads  downward.  If  cabbage  freeze 
when  thus  stored,  no  serious  harm  will  follow.  While 
thus  frozen,  cabbage  should  never  be  fed  to  any  kind 
of  live  stock,  not  even  swine.  And  it  should  be 
remembered  that  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  are 
greatly  injurious  to  this  plant. 

Cabbage  may  be  kept  even  more  surely  and 
probably  more  simply  in  some  climates,  by  lifting 
them  with  the  potato  fork  and  standing  them  in  a 
double  or  treble  line,  with  the  root  upward  and  with 
all  or  nearly  all  the  leaves  retained.  The  cabbages 
are  brought  to  a  ridge  by  adding  a  third  row  when 
there  are  but  two  rows  on  the  ground,  or  by  adding 
two  rows  and  then  another  when  there  are  three 
rows  on  the  foundation.  They  are  then  covered  as 
described  above.  And  sometimes  a  plow  furrow 
may  be  turned  toward  the  cabbage  on  either  side 
with  manifest  advantage. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  COMMON  CEREALS. 

The  chief  of  the  common  cereals  grown  in  this 
country,  are  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye.  They  are 
produced  as  winter,  or  spring  varieties  according  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  grown. 
All  of  these  may  be  grown  singly  for  soiling  food, 
or  they  may  be  grown  in  various  combinations. 
Peas  and  vetches  may  also  be  included  in  some  of 
these  combinations,  and  when  they  can  be  so  in- 
cluded, much  is  added  to  the  value  of  the  food;  as 
shown  in  Chapter  VI.  The  least  valuable  of  these 
crops  for  soiling  uses  are  rye  and  barley.  Rye 
turns  woody  so  soon  after  the  ear  has  formed,  that 
it  becomes  unpalatable;  and  the  feeding  value  of 
'barley  is  lessened  soon  after  it  somes  out  in  head, 
because  of  the  presence  of  the  beards  found  in 
nearly  all  varieties  of  this  cereal.  For  feeding  pur- 
poses these  mixtures  are  usually  valuable  in  propor-. 
tion  to  the  peas  or  vetches  which  they  contain.  This 
arises  from  the  more  nitrogenous  character  of  the 
latter,  their  greater  palatability,  and  the  large  yields 
of  the  fodder  which  they  produce  in  pea  and  vetch 
soils. 

The  combinations  in  which  these  crops  may  be 
grown  are  various.  There  may  be  instances  in 
which  several  of  them  may  be  grown  together,  but 
usually  only  two  or  three  varieties  are  thus  grown. 

168 


I7O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Three  of  these  combinations  stand  higher  in  favor 
than  the  others.  I,  A  combination  of  peas  and  oats ; 
2,  a  combination  of  vetches  and  oats ;  and  3,  a  com- 
bination of  wheat  and  oats.  The  last  named 
combination  is  frequently  grown  where  peas  or 
vetches  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  furnish  soiling 
food. 

Several  advantages  arise  from  growing  these 
plants  in  combination,  i,  Usually  there  is  a  greater 
production  of  food  from  a  given  area.  2,  They 
can  be  grown  more  thickly,  hence  the  straw  is  finer 
and  is  better  relished  by  stock.  3,  They  furnish 
a  better  balanced  food  than  when  grown  alone. 

The  green  food  produced  by  these  mixed  crops 
can  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  live  stock,  but  it  has 
relatively  higher  adaptation  for  dairy  cattle,  be- 
cause of  the  free  milk  giving  that  results  from  feed- 
ing it.  Mixed  crops  may  be  fed  to  sheep  and  swine, 
but  only  when  in  a  quite  succulent  stage  of  growth, 
or  when  it  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  peas  or 
vetches.  Wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye  become  so 
woody  when  well  advanced  in  growth,  that  sheep  and 
swine  do  not  relish  them.  It  is  more  common  to 
pasture  both  on  these  mixtures  than  to  feed  them 
in  the  form  of  soiling  food. 

The  yields  will  of  course  vary  with  the  con- 
ditions. The  minimum  crop  that  it  would  be  profit- 
able to  grow  may  be  fixed  at,  say,  six  tons  per  acre. 
A  good  crop  should  run  from  ten  to  twelve  tons  per 
acre.  But  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  double  these 
amounts. 

Distribution. — Wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye 
possess  a  wide  distribution.  The  distribution  of 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS. 

peas  and  vetches  has  already  been  considered  in 
Chapter  VI.  All  these  grains  unless  it  be  peas,  can 
be  grown  in  both  the  winter  and  spring  varieties. 
The  four  first  named  can  be  grown  in  some  portion, 
or  portions  of  every  state  in  the  Union  and  of  every 
province  of  Canada.  South  of  the  fortieth  parallel 
they  do  not  generally  grow  so  freely  as  north  of  that 
line,  hence  they  are  not  so  valuable  for  producing 
green  food  as  some  other  crop  or  crops  better  adapted 
to  soils  that  are  frequently  low  in  plant  food,  or 
lacking  in  moisture. 

Wheat  is  usually  considered  too  valuable  to  be 
used  as  soiling  food,  and  yet  there  are  some  localities, 
where  it  can  be  more  cheaply  grown  for  such  a  use 
than  almost  any  other  kind  of  food.  These  localities 
include  much  of  the  land  in  the  northerly  portions  of 
the  semi-arid  belt  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  the 
Palouse  and  Walla  Walla  areas  of  Washington,  and 
limited  areas  in  northwestern  Oregon.  In  all  these 
areas  wheat  is  grown  as  hay,  and  where  it  furnishes 
a  highly  prized  food  for  hay  it  will  also  furnish  a 
very  suitable  soiling  food.  There  are  other  areas 
so  perfectly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  immense  crops 
of  oats  that  this  plant  can  be  made  to  furnish  green 
food  more  cheaply  than  any  other.  Such  are  certain 
river  valleys  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains.  Barley, 
although  it  grows  very  rapidly,  is  commonly  too 
low  in  production  to  make  it  a  profitable  soiling 
crop,  but  it  will  produce  green  food  under  a  greater 
variety  of  conditions  than  any  of  the  other  cereals 
tinder  consideration.  In  addition  to  its  being  low 
in  palatability  there  is  the  objection  that  it  is  com- 
monly in  season  for  feeding  when  grass  is  plentiful. 


IJ2  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Soil. — Wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye  may  be 
successfully  grown  on  a  wide  range  of  soils.  Each 
kind,  nevertheless,  has  its  favorite  soil.  Wheat 
luxuriates  in  deep,  moist,  pliable  loam  soils,  well 
spiced  with  clay  and  well  stored  with  vegetable 
matter.  The  loose  lying  soils  of  nearly  all  the  west- 
ern prairies  have  high  adaptation  for  wheat  pro- 
duction. Soils  ill  adapted  to  the  growing  of  wheat 
include  those  that  are  sandy  and  poorly  supplied 
with  nitrogen,  those  that  are  shallow,  with  hardpan 
coming  near  the  surface,  and  those  that  contain  an 
excess  of  water  at  any  time  during  the  growth  of 
the  plants.  Oats  also  grow  most  luxuriantly  on 
soils  that  are  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  wheat. 
But  since  the  oat  plant  is  a  more  gross  feeder  than 
the  wheat  plant,  it  will  produce  a  better  growth 
relatively  than  wheat  on  soil  ill  conditioned,  me- 
chanically and  imperfectly  supplied  with  plant  food. 
Barley  will  grow  better  relatively  on  soils  rich  in 
humus  and  in  readily  available  fertility.  Black 
loam  soils,  with  enough  sand  to  keep  them  in  a  good 
mechanical  condition,  have  high  adaptation  for 
barley,  and  since  this  grain  feeds  near  the  surface 
rather  than  far  down,  much  depth  of  subsoil  is  less 
essential  to  the  growth  of  barley  than  to  the  growth 
of  wheat  and  oats.  The  soils  with  least  adaptation 
for  barley  include  those  deficient  in  humus  and  which 
contain  an  excess  of  clay.  Since  the  crop  grows 
rapidly,  if  it  is  to  be  a  success,  the  young  plants 
must  be  able  to  send  their  rootlets  quickly  and  in  all 
directions  between  the  soil  particles. 

Rye  is  beyond  all  comparison  the  most  vigor- 
ous feeder  of  the  four  cereals  under  discussion.  It 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  173 

will  stand  more  abuse  than  wheat,  oats  or  barley; 
that  is  to  say,  it  will  grow  better  than  any  of  these 
when  sown  on  soil  not  well  prepared,  poorly  sup- 
plied with  plant  food,  and  under  adverse  climatic 
conditions.  Rye  will  grow  well  on  all  soils  pos- 
sessed of  high  adaptation  for  wheat,  oats  or 
barley.  It  will  also  give  a  fairly  good  return  on 
soils  too  light  and  poor  to  produce  good  crops 
of  those  cereals. 

When  these  plants  are  grown  in  combination 
the  aim  should  be  to  grow  them  on  soils  generously 
supplied  with  plant  food.  The  value  of  a  soiling 
food  is  usually  largely  proportionate  to  the  abun- 
dance of  the  yield,  hence  the  mistake  of  sowing  under 
conditions  that  do  not  give  promise  of  an  abundant 
yield.  One  variety  will  find  its  favorite  food  in 
such  a  soil  and  will  appropriate  the  same.  A  second 
variety  will  do  likewise,  and  so  with  a  third  and 
fourth.  Since  these  appropriations  draw  in  differ- 
ent degrees  on  the  same  food  elements,  each  is 
enabled  to  get  its  share  and  thus  to  contribute  to  a 
large  aggregate  yield.  In  growing  these  crops  as 
green  food,  it  should  be  remembered  that  since  the 
object  is  to  get  a  large  amount  of  green  food  with- 
out regard  to  grain  production,,  the  best  soiling 
crops  will  be  obtained  on  lands  too  rich  for  the  high- 
est grain  production. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — These  crops  may  be 
given  almost  any  place  in  the  rotation,  since  they  are 
cut  before  weeds  can  ripen  in  their  midst.  A  foul 
condition  of  the  land  at  the  time  of  sowing,  though 
objectionable,  is  not  so  seriously  objectionable  as  in 
growing  some  other  crops.  These  crops  may  be 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

grown  in  a  sense  as  catch  crops ;  that  is  to  say,  after 
early  pasture  crops,  as  winter  rye.  Or  they  may  be 
sown  early  and  be  followed  by  some  other  crops ;  as 
for  instance,  rape,  winter  wheat  or  winter  rye,  and 
in  certain  areas  by  winter  vetches  or  crimson  clover. 
When  these  crops  precede  a  winter  crop,  there  is 
usually  ample  time  to  prepare  the  land  well  before 
the  winter  crop  is  sown.  They  may  also  be  followed 
by  the  bare  fallow.  And  in  some  instances  they 
may  be  sown  late  in  the  season  to  provide  green  food 
late  in  the  fall.  These  crops  are  essentially  clean- 
ing crops,  and  they  thus  help  to  clean  the  land  with- 
out special  effort  on  the  part  of  the  grower  to  reach 
such  a  result. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the 
land  for  these  crops  is  simple,  as  it  is  for  all  crops 
that  fit  in  almost  anywhere  in  the  rotation.  Usually 
the  deeper,  the  finer,  the  more  moist,  the  richer  and 
cleaner  the  seed  bed,  the  more  satisfactory  will  be 
the  results  when  the  crop  has  been  sown.  And  as 
a  rule  these  conditions  can  be  more  perfectly  secured 
when  considerable  time  elapses  between  the  plowing 
of  the  land  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  But  there 
are  soils  in  which  deep  plowing  but  a  short  time 
before  sowing  the  seed  would  be  harmful  rather  than 
helpful  to  the  crop.  Such  are  light  sands  and 
heavy  clays.  When  these  crops  are  to  be  sown  after 
another  crop  previously  harvested  the  same  season, 
moisture  in  the  soil  will  be  conserved  to  a  much 
greater  extent  by  using  the  roller  and  harrow  freely 
as  soon  as  possible  after  the  land  has  been  plowed. 

On  lands  of  average  fertility  these  grain  crops 
may  of  course  be  grown  quite  sucessfully  without 


THE  COMMON  CEREALS.  175 

further  enriching  the  land.  But  it  may  be  profitable 
to  add  fertilizers  when  the  facilities  are  at  hand,  to 
stimulate  abundant  production.  Farmyard  manures 
are  excellent  when  applied  in  a  form  suitable  to  the 
needs  of  the  land.  Where  much  rainfall  is  expected 
the  manure  may  be  applied  in  the  fresh  form,  but 
when  moisture  will  probably  be  deficient,  it  should 
be  applied  in  the  reduced  form. 

The  commercial  fertilizers  most  commonly  used 
are  those  which  are  designated  complete  fertilizers, 
but  the  nitrogen  content  in  them  should  usually  be 
high  to  meet  the  need  of  these  crops.  And  when 
moisture  is  present  in  a  sufficient  degree,  these  crops 
may  be  further  stimulated  by  sowing  on  them  nitro- 
gen in  some  form,  after  the  plants  have  made  a  good 
start.  It  is  not  usual,  however,  to  go  to  much  ex- 
pense in  specially  enriching  the  land  for  this  class  of 
green  crops,  because  of  the  short  duration  of  the 
period  of  growth. 

Sowing. — The  seed  may  be  broadcasted  when 
the  facilities  for  drilling  it  are  not  at  hand,  but  in 
nearly  all  instances  it  will  be  found  preferable  to 
sow  the  seed  with  the  drill.  The  drill  buries 
it  more  uniformly  as  to  depth  and  covers  it  more 
perfectly.  Ordinarily  when  these  grains  are  sown 
as  mixtures,  it  is  labor  saving  and  more  satis- 
factory in  various  ways  to  mix  them  before  they 
are  sown. 

The  most  suitable  kinds  to  sow  will  be  those 
which  past  experience  has  shown  to  be  the  most 
vigorous  growers.  These  will  vary  with  variations 
in  climate  and  soil.  No  one  variety  of  any  kind  of 
grain  can  be  found  that  will  grow  equally  well  in  all 


176  SOILING   CROPS   AND   THE    SILO. 

parts  even  of  a  single  state.  In  choosing  varieties 
preference  should  be  given  to  those  which  stool 
much,  and  produce  growth  of  a  fine  character,  pro- 
viding they  are  not  too  weak  in  the  straw  to  prove 
satisfactory. 

When  these  grains  are  sown  singly,  the  quantity 
of  seed  that  may  best  be  used  can  be  given  only 
approximately.  The  same  is  true  of  them  when  sown 
in  combination.  In  some  soils  the  plants  stool  much 
more  than  in  others  and  grow  with  much  more  vigor. 
The  quantity  of  seed  therefore,  that  will  best  serve 
the  end  sought  will  have  to  be  ascertained  by  actual 
test.  It  will  seldom  be  found  profitable  to  sow  less 
than  two  or  more  than  three  bushels  per  acre.  The 
latter  quantity  or  a  close  approximate  to  it  will 
usually  prove  more  satisfactory  than  a  less  quantity 
of  seed.  But  when  vetches  form  a  chief  factor  in 
the  crop,  a  less  quantity  of  seed  may  suffice,  because 
of  the  small  relative  size  of  the  vetch  seed. 

When  wheat  and  oats  are  sown  together,  it  is 
customary  to  sow  about  equal  quantities  of  each. 
This  will  give  a  preponderance  of  the  oat  element 
in  the  crop,  because  of  the  greater  stooling  power  of 
the  latter,  and  this  is  so  far  satisfactory  since  green 
oats  are  considered  more  palatable  than  green  wheat. 
When  peas  and  oats  are  sown  together,  the  most 
suitable  quantity  of  the  seed  of  each  will  be  de- 
termined chiefly  by  conditions  which  relate  to  the 
soil  adaptation,  as  previously  intimated.  Because 
of  the  nitrogenous  character  of  the  peas  and  because 
of  their  high  palatability,  the  aim  should  be  to  have 
the  peas  form  the  preponderating  element  in  the 
food.  The  same  is  also  true  of  vetches.  It  may  be 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  177 

necessary,  therefore,  to  sow  the  peas  or  vetches  aa 
three  to  one  or  two  to  one  by  measure,  as  compared 
with  the  oats  in  the  mixture.  On  the  other  hand 
certain  soils  may  be  so  much  better  adapted  to  grow- 
ing peas  or  vetches  than  oats,  that  in  order  to  secure 
the  necessary  support  for  the  former,  more  than  half 
of  the  seed  by  measure  must  needs  consist  of  oats. 
When  peas  and  vetches  are  both  sown  along  with 
oats,  the  proportions  that  ought  to  be  sown  of  each 
in  the  mixture  should  be  determined  by  conditions 
that  relate  to  soil  and  climate,  and  to  the  character 
of  the  food  sought. 

Usually  the  common  cereals  are  sown  to  pro- 
vide soiling  food  as  early  as  possible  in  the  season, 
though  of  course  they  are  frequently  sown  later;  in 
certain  instances  as  late  as  midsummer.  To  prolong 
the  season  of  feeding,  it  is  common  to  sow  a  portion 
only  of  the  seed  at  first,  and  the  remainder  two  or 
three  weeks  later,  or  it  is  sown  at  two  intervening 
intervals  rather  than  one.  The  chief  objection  to 
the  plan  is  found  in  the  decreased  production  of 
the  later  sowings,  but  to  this  there  are  some  ex- 
ceptions. 

Another  plan  sows  a  quick  maturing  variety  as 
barley,  and  at  the  same  time  a  mixture  that  grows 
more  slowly,  as  peas  and  oats.  The  period  of  feed- 
ing may  thus  be  made  to  cover  from,  say  five  to 
eight  weeks,  and  if  the  quantity  sown  should  be  in 
excess  of  the  needs  of  the  stock,  it  can  be  turned  to 
excellent  account  by  harvesting  it  for  winter  fodder 
when  the  grain,  or  much  of  it,  is  in  the  milk  stage. 
Barley  is  probably  the  most  suitable  of  all  the  com- 
mon cereals  to  provide  green  food  in  the  autumn; 
12 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS. 

and  in  moist  climates  only,  can  it  be  sown  for  such 
a  purpose,  as  for  instance,  in  New  England. 

Cultivation. — Ordinarily  no  cultivation  is  given 
to  these  crops  after  they  have  been  sown.  But  there 
may  be  instances  when  the  harrow  can  be  used  on 
them  to  advantage,  more  especially  when  peas  and 
oats  have  been  sown  together  and  buried  with  the 
grain  drill  at  an  even  depth.  If  harrowed  with 
more  or  less  thoroughness  just  as  the  first  young 
plants  begin  to  appear,  the  growth  of  weeds  will  be 
checked  and  the  moisture  in  the  ground  will  be  better 
conserved.  Before  the  weeds  can  make  a  good  start 
again  the  plants  get  so  far  ahead  of  them  as  to 
materially  hinder  their  growth.  But  if  the  ground 
is  unduly  moist,  the  harrow  cannot  of  course  be  used 
thus.  A  light  harrow  should  be  used,  generally, 
having  teeth  slanted  backward. 

There  may  also  be  instances  when  it  would  be 
more  profitable  to  plant  the  crop  in  rows  sufficiently 
distant  to  give  them  more  or  less  horse  cultivation. 
Such  a  method  of  growing  these  plants  would  be 
especially  helpful  where  moisture  is  not  present  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  produce  a  maximum  growth. 
Crops  thus  cultivated  would  no  doubt  produce  much 
more  abundantly  in  a  dry  region,  but  the  system 
belongs  rather  to  the  future  than  to  the  present. 
The  machinery  for  bestowing  such  cultivation  has 
not  yet  been  perfected. 

Feeding. — With  regard  to  the  best  method  of 
feeding  these  crops,  much  that  has  been  said  under 
the  head  of  feeding  in  the  chapter  on  corn  will  be 
equally  applicable  to  them.  The  cutting  of  rye  as  a 
soiling  food  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  first  growth 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  l8l 

will  justify  such  a  course,  and  it  should  not  be  fed  for 
any  considerable  time  after  it  has  reached  the  earing 
stage,  unless  it  is  to  be  run  through  a  cutting  box  and 
fed  with  other  food,  as  "chaffed"  hay.  When  thus 
prepared,  and  meal  is  added  to  the  mixture,  it  would 
then  be  possible  to  feed  green  rye  until  the  grain 
began  to  form  in  the  ear,  and  possibly  for  a  longer 
period.  If  fed  alone  after  it  has  fully  come  out  in 
head,  animals  do  not  relish  it  sufficiently  to  make  it  a 
desirable  soiling  food.  Barley  also  should  be  fed  at 
a  stage  before  the  beards  begin  to  stiffen. 

When  food  is  grown  in  mixtures  the  grains 
composing  these  will  not  always  be  possessed  of 
equal  advancement,  careful  discrimination  is  neces- 
sary on  the  part  of  the  grower  as  to  when  the  cutting 
should  begin.  Usually  when  peas,  or  vetches  in  the 
mixture  have  produced  some  blossoms  and  when 
the  heads  of  other  kinds  of  grain  are  ready  to  leave 
the  leafy  envelope  which  surrounds  them,  the  cutting 
of  the  crop  may  begin.  At  the  stage  indicated  as 
suitable  to  begin  cutting  these  crops,  they  have  not 
reached  that  stage  when  they  contain  the  highest 
food  value,  but  to  leave  them  longer  before  begin- 
ning to  harvest  them  would,  too  much,  curtail  the 
duration  of  the  period  in  which  they  could  be  fed 
with  profit  in  the  green  form. 

Like  other  green  crops  they  are  cut  with  the 
scythe  or  mower,  and  drawn  in  the  usual  way. 
When  these  crops  grow  very  rankly  they  are 
occasionally  thrown  down  with  storms  which  in- 
creases the  labor  of  cutting  them.  In  some  instances 
the  mower  can  only  be  driven  on  two  sides  of  the 
plot  or  field,  if  the  crop  is  to  be  cleanly  gathered. 


1 82  SOILING    CROPS    AND   THE    SILO. 

The  foo&  when  cut  may  be  lifted  with  sufficient 
cleanness  when  a  fork  is  used,  with  several  tines  in  it, 
that  is  to  say,  a  fork  made  somewhat  after  the  plan 
of  a  barley  fork.  The  green  food  may  be  fed 
without  any  wilting,  but  a  moderate  amount  of  wilt- 
ing is  in  no  way  injurious  to  it.  .  . 

When  there  is  a  surplus  of  green  food  it  may  of 
course  be  allowed  to  reach  a  stage  of  early  ripening, 
and  may  then  be  harvested  for  winter  use.  In 
harvesting  the  same  the  mower  or  the  binder  may  be 
used  according  to  the  attendant  circumstances,  but 
if  the  binder  is  used  the  sheaves  should  be  made 
small  rather  than  large,  tied  loosely  rather  than 
tightly,  and  cured  in  oblong  rather  than  in  round 
shocks.  Wheat  and  oats  grown  together  ought  to 
be  cut  for  winter  food  at  a  stage  somewhat  earlier 
than  peas  and  oats  to  insure  enough  palatability  in 
the  straw.  When  the  stems  of  the  plants  turn 
yellow  for  a  short  distance  above  the  ground,  the 
crop  is  ready  for  harvesting.  Peas  and  oats  thus 
harvested  make  a  splendid  fodder  for  winter  feed- 
ing. It  is  easily  cured  and  handled,  and  is  at  once 
highly  palatable  and  nutritious. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MILLETS. 

Millet  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable 
soiling  crops  grown  in  this  country.  Its  great 
value  as  soiling  food  arises,  ist,  from  the  palatable 
and  nutritious  character  of  the  food  which  it  pro- 
duces; 2nd,  from  the  shortness  of  the  period  re- 
quired to  grow  it;  3rd,  from  the  large  amount 
&f  food  that  can  be  grown  upon  rich  land ;  4th,  from 
the  wide  distribution  of  the  crop;  and  5th,  from 
the  many  and  various  places  which  may  be  assigned 
to  it  in  the  rotation,  consequently  when  it  becomes 
better  known,  it  will  be  used  as  soiling  food  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  it  is  at  the  present  time. 

Millet  is  of  many  species  and  varieties,  not  a 
few  of  which  have  been  but  little  tested  in  this 
country,  and  consequently  they  are  not  as  yet  well 
understood.  The  classification  of  the  millets  is  still 
regarded  as  incomplete  by  the  Department  of 
Agrostology  at  Washington,  but  for  the  present 
the  said  Department  has  grouped  them  as  the  fox- 
tail, the  barnyard,  the  broom  corn  and  the  pearl 
groups.  To  the  foxtail  millets  belong  such  sorts  as 
the  Common,  the  German,  the  Hungarian  and  the 
Golden  wonder  varieties.  These  are  relatively  small 
and  fine  in  their  habit  of  growth.  German  millet 
is  characterized  by  an  abundant  leaf  growth.  Hun- 
garian millet  produces  heads  of  a  dark  shade,  hence 

183 


MILLETS.  185 

it  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  other  foxtail 
millets  after  the  earing  stage.  Golden  wonder 
millet  is  a  great  seed  producer  but  it  is  probably 
less  valuable  as  a  soiling  food  than  the  other  varieties 
of  the  foxtail  class. 

The  barn  yard  millets  include  the  varieties  de- 
rived from  the  common  barn  yard  grass  (Panicum 
crus-galli).  The  African  millets  are  also  included 
in  this  class.  They  are  characterized  by  an  abundant 
growth,  but  are  somewhat  coarse  in  character 
The  broom  corn  millets  are  rather  grown  for  the 
grain  they  produce  than  to  provide  soiling  food,  but 
they  also  may  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food. 
The  pearl  millets  are  but  little  grown  as  yet  in  this 
country.  Some  of  the  varieties  produce  an  abun- 
dant growth,  but  they  are  not  considered  so  palatable 
as  cultivated  millets  of  the  foxtail  class.  They  have 
not  been  much  introduced  as  yet  into  American 
agriculture,  hence  little  can  be  said  as  to  their  adapta- 
tion and  value.  But  one  variety  of  this  group  will 
be  considered  in  Chapter  XIII,  when  discussing 
plants  whose  value  in  providing  soiling  food  has  not 
been  fully  demonstrated. 

Distribution. — Few  plants  grown  as  food  for 
live  stock  on  this  continent  are  of  wider  distribu- 
tion than  millet.  Since  it  can  be  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced in  growth  for  being  cut  as  soiling  food  in 
from  fifty  to  ninety  days  from  the  date  of  sowing, 
there  are  but  few  localities  in  the  United  States  in 
which  it  may  not  be  grown  with  entire  success. 
And  since  it  is  in  a  pre-eminent  degree  a  plant  of 
the  sun,  the  climatic  conditions  least  favorable  to  its 
growth  in  our  country  will  probably  be  found  in 


MILLETS.  IS/ 

Oregon  and  Washington,  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea.  In  all  the  other  portions  of  the  United 
States  the  season  of  high  summer  temperatures  is 
sufficiently  prolonged  to  force  millet  crops  quickly 
into  maturity,  unless  it  be  upon  the  mountain  up- 
lands. The  climate  of  all  the  central  and  southern 
states  is  markedly  favorable  to  the  growth  of  millet. 

The  highest  adaptation  of  soil  and  climate 
together  are  probably  found  in  the  Mississippi  basin, 
from  Lake  Itasca  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Millet 
is  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  the  hay  crops  grown 
within  this  basin,  and  it  is  an  indispensable  factor  in 
growing  soiling  foods  for  stock.  The  less  favorable 
the  conditions  for  the  successful  growth  of  hay 
crops  the  more  indispensable  does  the  millet  crop 
seem  to  be.  The  climatic  conditions  in  what  are 
usually  spoken  of  as  the  southern  states  are  equally 
favorable,  but  not  so  of  the  soil  conditions,  hence 
the  growth  of  millet  is  not  so  common  in  these  as  it 
would  otherwise  be.  The  crop  has  not  been  grown 
to  nearly  the  same  extent  in  New  England  and  the 
adjacent  states  as  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  because 
of  the  stiffer  soils,  and  in  many  instances  because 
of  the  more  hungry  soils  of  the  former.  The  millet 
crop  can  also  be  grown  v;ith  a  fair  measure  of  suc- 
cess in  nearly  all  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  Canada. 
The  lowest  adaptation  is  found  in  British  Columbia 
and  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  beside  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  highest  adaptation  in  the  prairie  provinces 
eastward  from  the  Rocky  mountains  to  Lake 
Superior. 

Soil. — Millet  in  all  its  forms  requires  a  rich 
soil  and  a  soil  easily  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  the 


l88  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

plant  in  order  to  grow  it  in  the  best  form.  Soils 
abounding  in  vegetable  matter  and  naturally  warm 
and  friable,  and  which  furnish  plant  food  abundantly 
in  a  readily  available  form,  are  best  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  millet.  Such  soils  abound  in  much  of 
the  prairie  region  which  extends  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  far  northward,  although  in  seasons  that  are 
moist,  good  crops  of  millet  may  be  grown  even  on 
stiff  clays.  But  these  soils  are  not  well  suited,  as  a 
rule,  to  the  growth  of  millet.  In  nearly  all  instances 
too  much  labor  has  to  be  bestowed  upon  such  soils 
to  prepare  a  seed  bed  sufficiently  fine  and  moist. 
They  are  not  sufficiently  penetrable  to  the  roots  of 
the  millet,  and  the  plant  food  in  them  is  not  suffi- 
ciently available.  Light  and  hungry  sandy  soils  are 
ill  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  crop,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  soils  unduly  moist  and  cold.  But  immense 
crops  can  be  grown  on  the  muck  soils  of  drained 
sloughs  and  marshes.  Millet  can  be  grown  nicely 
under  irrigation  in  the  warm  mountain  valleys  of  the 
west.  But  in  these  it  is  not  specially  needed  because  of 
the  abundant  product  of  alfalfa  obtained  from  them. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Millet  in  nearly  all  its 
varieties  may  be  given  almost  any  place  in  the  rota- 
tion. It  may  be  the  sole  crop  for  the  season,  or  it 
may  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop.  It  is  more  com- 
monly grown  as  a  catch  crop,  since  in  many  sections 
the  season  is  amply  long  to  grow  a  crop  of  millet 
after  another  crop  has  been  removed  and  before  an 
autumn  crop  has  been  planted  on  the  same  land. 

Millet  is  seldom  made  the  sole  crop  grown  upon 
the  land,  except  in  instances  where  the  husbandman 
has  been  unable  to  sow  other  crops  in  season,  because 


MILLETS.  189 

of  excessive  wetness  in  the  soil,  or  because  of  some 
other  reason.  But  when  it  is  thus  grown  it  may  in  a 
sense  be  made  a  cleaning  crop,  even  though  sown 
broadcast,  since  there  is  more  or  less  time  for  sprout- 
ing the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
before  the  millet  is  sown,  and  when  the  seed  is 
sown  in  rows  and  cultivated  it  may  always  be  made 
a  cleaning  crop. 

Millet  may  be  sown  with  much  propriety  after 
such  winter  crops  as  rye,  the  winter  vetch,  the  winter 
oat,  or  crimson  clover  when  these  have  been  pastured 
or  cut  for  green  food.  Under  favorable  conditions 
it  may  be  sown  after  the  first  cutting  of  medium 
red  clover  or  even  after  grain  crops  that  have 
matured  early,  and  it  fits  in  nicely  after  newly  sown 
meadow  crops  in  which  the  "stand"  of  grass  has 
been  a  partial  failure,  and  which  in  consequence  has 
been  grazed  down.  With  equal  fitness  it  may  come 
after  spring  sown  grain  which  from  any  cause  may 
have  failed.  Fall  wheat  is  sometimes  sown  after 
millet,  but  the  plan  of  sowing  it  thus  is  not  a  good 
one,  since  millet,  like  flax,  preys  heavily  upon  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  It  has  also  been  noticed  that  it 
leaves  the  soil  much  depleted  of  its  moisture.  It 
may  with  much  greater  propriety  be  followed  by 
winter  rye,  which  has  greater  power  than  winter 
wheat  to  gather  food  in  the  soil,  and  with  equal  pro- 
priety it  may  be  followed  by  a  leguminous  crop,  as 
the  common  winter  vetch  or  the  sand  vetch. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Since  millet  is  grown  so 
variously  in  the  rotation,  only  directions  that  are 
general  rather  than  specific  can  be  given  relating  to 
the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  seed.  It  should 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

be  the  aim  of  the  grower  to  prepare  a  seed  bed  clean, 
moist,  fine  and  smooth.  The  clean  seed  bed  can  only 
be  reached  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  harrow  for  some 
time  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  But  when 
millet  is  grown  as  a  catch  crop  the  season  for  prepar- 
ing the  seed  bed  is  usually  too  short  to  admit  of  thus 
cleaning  the  land.  The  means  used  to  secure  a  clean 
seed  bed  will  also  tend  to  conserve  moisture  in  the 
same,  and  the  judicious  use  of  the  roller  will  also 
tend  to  secure  the  same  end. 

In  cloddy  soils,  a  fine  seed  bed  can  only  be 
secured  by  the  judicious  use  of  some  form  of  clod 
crusher  or  harrow  and  roller.  In  a  dry  time  it  would 
be  labor  lost  to  sow  millet  in  cloddy  soil.  A  level 
seed  bed  is  secured  by  careful  plowing  and  by  supple- 
menting such  plowing  with  drawing  some  form  of 
leveler  over  the  soil.  When  any  considerable  period 
elapses  between  the  plowing  of  the  land  and  the  sow- 
ing of  the  seed,  the  land  may  be  fitted  as  desired,  but 
it  more  often  happens  that  the  seed  must  be  sown  so 
soon  after  the  plowing  of  the  land  that  it  hinders  the 
fitting  of  the  same  in  the  very  best  form. 

It  is  not  usual  to  apply  fertilizers  directly  in 
sowing  a  millet  crop,  more  especially  in  the  north 
and  west.  In  the  north,  fertilizers  are  applied  to 
crops  that  are  considered  more  important.  In  the 
west  they  are  not  much  needed.  But  on  ordinary 
soils  the  yield  from  this  crop  will  be  greatly  increased 
by  the  judicious  use  of  fertilizers.  When  they  are 
used  it  should  be  in  the  readily  available  form,  owing 
to  the  shortness  of  the  season  in  which  millet  makes 
its  growth.  If  farmyard  manure  is  applied  it  ought 
to  be  in  the  reduced  form  and  incorporated  as  much 


MILLETS.  191 

as  possible  witn  e  surface  soil,  since  millet  gathers 
its  food  near  the  surface  rather  than  far  down  in 
the  soil.  When  commercial  fertilizers  are  used,  they 
should  usually  contain  a  relatively  high  content  of 
nitrogen,  and  there  are  instances  in  which  \vhat  are 
termed  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  needed. 

Sowing. — Millet  is  more  commonly  so wn  broad- 
cast and  by  hand.  But  it  may  be  sown  by  certain 
kinds  of  grain  drills  in  common  use.  The  following 
objections  apply  to  hand  sowing :  i,  The  seed  is  not 
buried  so  evenly,  hence  the  germination  is  less  per- 
fect than  when  the  seed  is  sown  with  the  drill ;  2,  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  plants  start  so  near 
the  surface  that  the  loss  of  plants  is  greater  if  the 
harrow  is  used  subsequently ;  3,  the  plants  have  also 
less  power  to  withstand  drouth. 

Whether  all  the  drill  tubes  should  be  used  in 
sowing  millet  or  only  a  part  of  them  depends  to  a 
considerable  extent  on  the  kind  of  the  millet.  The 
small  sorts  are  usually  sown  with  all  the  tubes  in  use, 
but  the  larger  ones  are  frequently  sown  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  admit  of  easy  cultivation.  These 
rows  are  in  some  instances  made  thirty-six  inches 
apart,  but  more  frequently  the  distance  is  not  more 
than  thirty  inches.  The  small  millets,  as  the  Com- 
mon, the  German,  the  Hungarian,  the  Golden  Won- 
der and  the  Broom  Corn,  are  more  commonly  sown 
when  the  crop  is  not  to  be  cultivated.  But  the  larger 
kinds,  as  the  Japanese,  should  be  preferred  when 
subsequent  cultivation  is  to  be  given.  The  smaller 
sorts  furnish  the  more  palatable  food,  but  the  larger 
ones  produce  the  better  yields,  and  the  crops  that  are 
cultivated  can  withstand  dry  conditions  much  better 


IQ2  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

than  those  that  are  not  so  cultivated.  The  kinds 
best  suited  to  the  needs  of  any  locality  can  only  be 
determined  by  positive  test. 

When  millet  seed  is  sown  broadcast  by  hand, 
not  fewer  than  sixteen  quarts  of  seed  are  sown  per 
acre,  nor  more  than  thirty-two  quarts.  From  twenty 
to  twenty- four  quarts  may  be  called  average  quan- 
tities. Thick  sowing  results  in  a  finer  growth 
in  the  plants,  but  it  is  only  to  be  practiced  when 
enough  moisture  may  be  looked  for  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  crop.  When  the  seed  is  sown  in  rows 
far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  cultivating  the  crop,  a 
few  pounds  of  seed  will  suffice  per  acre. 

It  is  useless  to  sow  millet  before  the  ground  and 
weather  are  both  warm.  When  the  weather  is  raw 
and  cold  for  some  time  after  sowing  the  millet,  the 
germination  is  pretty  certain  to  be  imperfect,  and  the 
subsequent  growth  unsatisfactory.  It  is  usually 
better  not  to  begin  to  sow  millet  until  the  corn  plant- 
ing has  been  finished. 

Cultivation. — Millet  that  is  sown  broadcast  can- 
not even  be  harrowed  with  a  light  harrow  after  the 
seeds  have  sprouted,  without  destroying  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  plants.  But  when  sown  with 
the  drill,  the  plants  will  not  be  thus  disturbed  if  the 
harrow  is  drawn  over  the  ground  with  the  teeth  at  a 
considerable  angle,  before  the  plants  have  reached  the 
surface  of  the  same.  And  the  crop  may  even  be 
harrowed  at  a  later  period  if  the  work  is  done  with 
sufficient  care.  But  on  many  soils  some  form  of 
weeder  will  do  the  work  more  satisfactorily  when 
the  seed  has  been  broadcasted.  When  millet  seed 
is  not  dear,  if  more  seed  were  sown  than  would  be 


MILLETS.  193 

deemed  sufficient,  then  the  crop  can  be  harrowed 
with  benefit  to  the  same  after  the  plants  have  become 
well  rooted.  Notwithstanding  the  destruction  of 
plants,  there  will  still  be  enough  left,  and  they  will 
grow  much  more  vigorously  than  if  the  crop  were 
not  harrowed. 

Cultivation  should  begin  on  the  crops  sown  with 
that  object  in  view  soon  after  the  harrowing  has  been 
completed.  It  ought  to  be  frequent  and  thorough, 
and  shallow  rather  than  deep.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  give  the  crop  any  hand  hoeing  unless  it  is 
infested  with  some  form  of  perennial  weed  which 
it  is  desirable  to  exterminate,  as  usually  it  will  be 
ready  for  being  cut  before  annuals  growing  in  it  will 
have  matured  their  seed. 

Feeding. — The  cutting  of  millet  as  a  green  food 
may  begin  as  soon  as  any  considerable  number  of 
the  heads  have  appeared  and  it  may  be  continued 
until  the  crop  is  ready  for  being  made  into  hay.  Any 
portion  of  the  same  not  wanted  as  green  food  should 
be  thus  disposed  of  unless  it  is  wanted  to  produce 
seed.  Millet  is  sufficiently  advanced  for  being  made 
into  hay  when  all  the  heads  are  fully  out.  As  it 
usually  heads  out  unevenly,  the  tiny  heads  appear 
considerably  later  than  the  large  ones.  Or  it  may  be 
cut  when  the  heads  present  a  slightly  golden  tint  on 
looking  over  the  field.  If  the  crop  is  cut  earlier 
than  the  stage  mentioned,  it  is  lacking  in  "body," 
that  is  to  say,  weight  and  full  nutrition.  If  cut  at 
a  later  period  the  stems  become  woody  and  the  seeds 
shatter  more  or  less  while  the  crop  is  being  cured 
and  stored.  The  scythe  or  the  mower  are  to  be  used 
in  cutting  millet  as  green  food.  It  is  drawn  and  fed 

?3 


194  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE   «SILO. 

as  other  green  food,  in  the  pasture,  paddock,  yard, 
feed  rack  or  stable  mangers.  It  is  better  not  to 
allow  the  crop  to  wilt  overmuch  before  being  fed. 
But  wilting  millet  of  a  growth  rank  and  coarse  in 
character  will  add  to  its  palatability.  There  is  vir- 
tually no  danger  from  feeding  it  green. 

If  two  kinds  of  millet  which  mature  at  different 
periods  are  sown  separately  and  at  the  same  time,  the 
period  of  feeding  will  be  prolonged.  The  same  end 
may  be  attained  by  sowing  the  same  sort  with  an 
interval  of  three  to  four  weeks  between  the  periods 
of  sowing  the  seed.  The  period  for  feeding  green 
millet  may  thus  without  difficulty  be  made  to  em- 
brace from  six  to  eight  weeks  except  where  the  sea- 
son of  growth  is  ve'ry  short.  When  the  season  of 
growth  is  long,  the  period  of  feeding  may  be  pro- 
longed accordingly.  But  care  should  be  taken  tc 
harvest  millet  before  the  autumn  frosts  arrive,  as  it 
is  easily  injured  by  frost. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FIELD   ROOTS. 

More  commonly  field  roots  are  grown  to  pro- 
vide winter  food  for  live  stock,  but  in  some  instances 
they  are  also  grown  to  provide  soiling  food.  The 
chief  of  these  are  rutabagas,  turnips,  mangels,  sugar 
beets  and  carrots.  Parsnips  are  too  deeply  rooted 
to  admit  of  their  being  profitably  grown  as  soiling 
food,  and  the  same  is  somewhat  true  of  sugar  beets 
and  carrots.  The  growing  of  these  crops  involves 
much  more  labor  than  the  growing  of  a  crop  of 
rutabagas,  turnips  or  mangels.  And  since  rutabagas 
require  a  period  considerably  longer  to  mature  than 
turnips,  the  latter  are  preferred  for  summer  feeding. 
Turnips  and  mangels  are  therefore  more  highly 
adapted  to  providing  green  food  than  any  of  the  other 
field  roots  that  have  been  named.  No  one  of  these 
crops  has  been  grown  to  any  considerable  extent  in 
the  United  States  for  green  food,  nor  has  any  one 
of  them  been  grown  for  any  purpose  to  anything  like 
the  extent  to  which  its  feeding  value  would  justify. 
Ontario,  Can.,  is  beyond  all  comparison  the  greatest 
root-producing  district  in  North  America. 

The  labor  involved  in  growing  and  feeding 
these  crops  will  probably  form  an  effective  barrier 
against  their  general  introduction  as  soiling  food, 
and  yet  there  may  be  instances  when  it  would  be  the 
part  of  wisdom  to  grow  them.  While  for  all  kinds 

195 


196  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

of  live  stock  kept  upon  the  farm,  roots  furnish  excel- 
lent food,  they  are  more  commonly  fed  in  the  green 
form  to  swine,  though  sometimes  also  to  cows  and 
calves,  also  to  sheep  that  are  fitted  for  being  shorn. 
They  are  eminently  suited  to  the  needs  of  young 
animals,  such  as  calves  and  lambs,  whether  fed  in 
winter  or  summer.  Since  these  crops  can  oftentimes 
be  grown  as  a  catch  crop,  and  since  they  furnish  a 
large  amount  of  food  per  acre,  an  adequate  return 
may  frequently  be  obtained  for  the  considerable 
amount  of  labor  involved  in  growing  them,  espe- 
cially when  the  holdings  are  small  and  when  green 
food  is  to  be  provided  for  a  limited  number 
of  animals. 

As  the  tops  and  roots  are  both  fed  as  green  food, 
large  yields  are  often  obtained  per  acre,  in  some 
instances  as  much  as  twenty-five  tons,  but  the  aver- 
age crop  is  considerably  less  than  that  amount,  the 
yield  depending  largely  on  the  variety  grown. 

Distribution. — The  rutabaga,  sometimes  called 
the  Swedish  turnip,  is  best  adapted  to  cool  and  moist 
climates.  On  this  continent,  the  best  crops  can  be 
grown  north  rather  than  south  of  the  forty-third 
parallel  of  latitude,  that  is  to  say,  north  of  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  Minnesota. 

The  turnip  (Brassica  rapa),  sometimes  called 
the  fall  turnip,  since  it  is  fed  in  the  fall  rather  than 
in  the  winter  and  spring,  can  be  grown  in  nearly  all 
the  states  of  the  Union,  in  several  of  its  varieties,  but 
it,  too,  is  best  adapted  to  moist  and  not  exces- 
sively hot  climates.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States,  turnips  can  be  grown  in  best  form 
on  the  uplands,  unless  when  grown  chiefly  in 


FIELD    ROOTS.  1 97 

the  autumn  after  the  hottest  weather  for  the 
season  has  gone. 

The  mangel  (Beta  vulgaris)  will  endure  more 
heat  than  the  rutabaga,  or  turnip,  hence  it  has  a  wider 
distribution  than  those  crops,  but  the  mangel  also 
may  be  grown  more  satisfactorily  where  the  summer 
temperatures  are  not  excessive,  hence  the  best  mangel 
crops  may  be  looked  for  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel. 

The  sugar  beet  may  be  grown  in  good  form  in 
what  may  be  termed  "wine  climates,"  that  is  to  say, 
in  climates  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  the 
grape.  But,  like  mangels,  sugar  beets  may  be  grown 
much  further  north  than  grapes,  except  when  vines 
of  the  latter  are  specially  protected  in  winter. 

The  carrot  (Daucus  carota)  also  grows  best 
where  the  summer  weather  is  moist  and  temperate, 
but,  like  mangels,  carrots  can  be  grown  in  season  in 
some  part  or  parts  of  every  state  in  the  Union.  The 
highest  adaptation  for  field  roots  in  North  America 
is  found  in  Oregon,  Washington,  the  New  England 
states,  British  Columbia,  Ontario  and  the  Maritime 
Provinces  of  Canada. 

Soil. — All  kinds  of  field  roots  can  be  grown  in 
good  form  on  deep,  moist,  loam  soils,  and  possessed 
of  that  degree  of  admixture  of  clay  and  sand  which 
keeps  them  in  a  friable  condition.  But  the  exact  soil 
conditions  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  each  are 
not  exactly  the  same.  Clay  soils,  for  instance,  may 
be  made  to  produce  good  crops  of  mangels,  but  not 
of  turnips,  and  the  proportion  of  sand  in  the  soil 
that  would  aid  in  furnishing  high  adaptation  to  the 
growth  of  carrots  would  be  excessive  for  the  best 
results  in  growing  mangels.  Heavy  clays  are  not 


198  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  any  kind  of  field  roots 
for  soiling  uses,  since  the  labor  in  preparing  them  for 
the  seed  is  usually  over-much,  and  the  plants  grow 
slowly  in  them.  On  the  other  hand,  infertile  sands 
do  not  produce  enough  growth.  Black  loam  soils, 
such  as  abound  on  the  prairie,  have  high  adaptation, 
but  they  are  apt  to  be  much  infested  with  weeds. 
Slough  and  swamp  soils  will  produce  large  quanti- 
ties of  such  food  after  they  have  been  drained,  but 
in  them  the  growth  of  top  is  relatively  greater  than 
in  other  soils.  Peat  soils,  until  reduced,  are  usually 
not  good  root-producing  soils.  But  the  gray  sands 
of  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  will  produce  field 
roots  abundantly  when  supplied  with  water. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Field  roots  should 
always  be  grown  as  a  cleaning  crop;  whether  grown 
for  the  roots  only  or  for  the  roots  and  tops ;  in  other 
words,  whether  they  are  grown  for  winter  feeding 
or  for  summer  and  autumn  feeding.  But  when 
grown  for  the  last  named  use,  they  cannot,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  be  made  so  complete  a  cleaning  crop  for 
the  land,  unless  they  are  the  only  crop  grown  on 
the  same  during  that  season.  The  natural  place  for 
f.eld  roots,  therefore,  is  after  grain  crops  and  on 
Soils  that  need  renovation,  not  only  in  the  sense  of 
being  cleaned,  but  also  in  that  of  being  fertilized. 

These  crops  take  much  fertility  out  of  the  land 
and  therefore  cannot  be  successfully  grown  on 
depleted  soils,  unless  these  soils  have  first  been 
enriched.  But  it  is  a  very  propitious  time  to  enrich 
lands  when  root  crops  are  to  be  grown  upon  them, 
since,  owing  to  the  cleaning  given  to  the  soil,  the 
crops  which  follow  are  enabled  to  feed  upon  the 


FIELD    ROOTS.  1 99 

unused  increment  in  the  manure  rather  than  weeds. 
Grain  crops  naturally  follow  root  crops,  and  where 
clovers  and  grasses  grow  well,  these  are  usually 
sown  at  the  same  time  as  the  grain,  singly  or  in 
various  combinations.  But  field  roots,  more  espe- 
cially turnips,  may  frequently  be  grown  as  a  catch 
crop.  For  instance,  a  good  crop  of  turnips  may 
frequently  be  produced  after  the  removal  of  the  first 
cutting  of  the  clover.  The  clover  roots  furnish  very 
suitable  food  for  the  turnips. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — If  the  roots  are  to  be 
grown  for  winter  feeding,  the  soil  may  be  plowed  in 
the  fall  or  spring,  according  to  the  climatic  condi- 
tions and  the  kind  of  the  crop.  When  the  winters 
are  open  and  accompanied  by  considerable  rainfall, 
spring  plowing  will  be  the  best.  But  where  the 
ground  remains  frozen  from  autumn  until  spring, 
autumn  plowing  will  be  the  best.  The  condition  of 
heavy  soils  may  in  some  instances  be  improved  by 
plowing  both  in  the  autumn  and  in  the  -spring. 

The  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  clean,  fine  and 
moist  condition  of  the  land,  as  the  seeds  will  not 
germinate  in  cloddy  surfaces  with  but  scant  mois- 
ture. The  more  free  from  weed  seeds  the  soil  can 
be  made  before  sowing  the  seed,  the  less  will  be  the 
labor  of  tending  the  crop  while  it  is  growing.  There 
is  no  time  for  sprouting  weed  seeds  after  spring 
opens  in  growing  a  crop  of  carrots,  since  they  must 
be  planted  early.  Nor  is  there  time  for  the  same 
when  any  of  these  plants  are  grown  as  a  catch  crop. 
But  in  growing  mangels  and  sugar  beets  as  the  sole 
crop  for  the  season,  there  is  time  for  at  least  a  partial 
sprouting  of  the  weeds.  There  is  more  time  for 


20O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

this  in  growing  rutabagas  because  of  the  late  plant- 
ing season,  and  still  more  time  in  growing  turnips, 
since  the  turnips  are  planted  later  than  the  rutabagas. 

Farmyard  manure  is  excellent  for  such  crops. 
Where  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  the  manure 
should  be  applied  before  the  plowing  is  done,  except 
when  the  soils  are  leachy.  The  manure  should  then 
be  spread  on  the  surface  after  the  land  is  plowed. 
It  may  also  be  spread  on  the  land  in  autumn  or  win- 
ter when  it  is  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  When 
thus  applied  in  the  fresh  form  in  the  autumn  it 
becomes  incorporated  in  the  soil  by  the  cultivation 
given  to  the  land  before  sowing  the  seed.  But  unre- 
duced manure  should  not  be  thus  applied  in  climates 
over-dry.  Complete  commercial  fertilizers  are  the 
best  for  the  production  of  field  roots.  They  require 
a  liberal  feeding  of  phosphates,  hence  finely  ground 
bones  have  been  found  specially  helpful  in  the  pro- 
duction of  field  roots. 

Sowing. — In  localities  with  ample  moisture  it  is 
considered  preferable  to  sow  the  seed  of  all  kinds 
of  field  roots  in  raised  drills  when  grown  as  food  for 
live  stock.  But  where  moisture  is  not  abundant  in 
the  growing  season,  it  is  deemed  preferable  to  sow 
the  seed  in  unraised  rows,  as  the  needed  moisture 
escapes  more  readily  from  the  former.  But  when 
sown  in  raised  drills  the  cultivation  given  may  begin 
somewhat  earlier  and  the  hand  hoeing  is  more  easily 
done.  The  raised  drills  can  be  more  quickly  made 
by  using  a  double  mold-board  plow  and  a  marker. 
The  distance  between  them  will  vary  with  the  kind  of 
roots  grown  and  with  other  conditions,  but  usually 
it  is  not  less  than  twenty,  or  more  than  thirty  inches. 


FIELD    ROOTS.  2OI 

The  seed  is  commonly  sown  in  the  raised  drills 
with  a  machine  which  deposits  the  seed  in  two  rows 
at  a  time.  This  machine  is  drawn  by  one  horse  and 
is  furnished  with  two  rollers,  each  of  which  fits 
down  over  one  raised  drill  and  impacts  it  in  advance 
of  the  drill  spouts,  and  also  with  a  light  roller  which 
runs  behind.  In  some  instances  it  will  prove  advan- 
tageous to  run  a  heavy  land  roller  over  the  drills 
before  and  after  sowing  the  seed.  When  the  weather  is 
dry,  the  more  closely  the  seed  drill  is  made  to  follow 
the  drill  plow  the  surer  will  the  germination  be. 
When  sown  in  rows  on  the  level,  the  ground  may 
first  be  marked  out  by  some  kind  of  marker  and 
sown  with  a  hand  drill  when  the  area  is  not  large. 
But  when  the  area  is  extensive,  the  seed  should  be 
sown  by  seed  drills  adapted  to  such  work.  Some 
kinds  of  grain  drills  will  sow  seeds  thus  small.  With 
other  drills  it  is  necessary  to  mix  the  seed  with  some 
more  bulky  substance,  as  salt  or  road  dust,  before 
using  it.  But  whatever  the  mode  of  sowing  adopted, 
the  straighter  and  more  uniform  the  rows  the  more 
easily  and  perfectly  can  the  cultivation  be  done. 

The  variety  that  should  be  sown  will  vary  with 
localities  and  can  only  be  determined  by  actual  test. 
The  most  popular  variety  of  turnips  at  the  present 
time,  especially  in  the  northern  and  northwestern 
states,  is  the  Purple  Top  Strap  Leaf.  The  favorite 
variety  of  mangels  in  the  same  is  the  Mammoth 
Long  Red.  As  rutabagas,  sugar  beets  and  carrots 
are  seldom  grown  as  soiling  food,  it  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  add  more  on  the  subject  of  varieties.  But 
in  passing,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  much  soiling 
food  per  acre  may  be  obtained  from  some  of  the  half 


2O2  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

long  varieties  of  carrots  and  without  great  labor 
when  they  can  be  sown  on  clean  land.  Such  carrots 
are  easily  lifted. 

The  same  amounts  of  seed  may  be  sown 
whether  the  roots  are  used  for  soiling  food  or  for 
winter  feeding.  These  amounts  will  vary  with  the 
variety,  the  soil,  the  condition  of  the  same  and  with 
the  climate  and  weather  at  the  time  of  sowing.  But 
the  following  may  be  named  as  approximately  rep- 
resenting the  maximum  and  minimum  quantities  of 
seed  to  be  grown  per  acre  of  the  different  species  of 
field  roots  that  are  being  considered  when  grown  as 
food  for  domestic  animals :  Rutabagas  and  turnips, 
two  to  four  pounds;  mangels  and  sugar  beets,  four 
to  six  pounds ;  carrots,  two  to  four  pounds. 

The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  varieties  and  other  conditions.  Carrots 
should  be  sown  as  a  rule  early  in  the  season,  mangels 
and  sugar  beets  a  little  later.  Rutabagas  are  usually 
sown  two  or  three  weeks  later  than  the  normal 
season  of  corn  planting,  and  turnips  still  later  than 
rutabagas.  The  last  named  crop  will  frequently 
attain  a  maximum  of  growth  in  ninety  days.  Car- 
rots, on  the  other  hand,  require  much  of  the  growing 
season  to  complete  their  growth,  and  in  many  cli- 
mates all  of  it. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  plants  have 
become  far  enough  advanced  to  distinctly  mark  the 
line  of  the  row,  the  cultivation  should  begin.  Horse 
cultivation  is  usually  given  first.  It  should,  of 
course,  be  shallow  and  should  come  as  close  to  the 
line  of  the  row  as  possible  without  giving  disturb- 
ance to  the  plants.  The  remaining  weeds  should 


FIELD    ROOTS.  2O3 

then  be  cut  out  on  both  sides  of  the  row  with  the 
hand  hoe  and  without  waiting  to  thin  the  plants. 
If  the  hand  hoeing  thus  given  is  carefully  done,  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  bestow  upon  the  crop  any 
more  hand  labor  until  it  is  ready  for  being  fed.  If 
the  plants  are  thinned  as  when  they  are  grown  for 
winter  feeding,  the  proper  distance  at  which  to  thin 
them  will  vary  with  circumstances.  The  following 
may  be  given  as  the  maximum  distance  at  which 
the  plants  of  the  various  species  may  be  thinned: 
rutabagas  and  turnips,  twelve  inches;  mangels, 
twelve  inches ;  sugar  beets,  nine  inches ;  and  carrots, 
eight  inches.  The  average  distance  to  leave  between 
the  plants  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance  named 
as  the  maximum.  It  is  seldom  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  thin  the  plants  when  they  are  grown 
as  soiling  food. 

The  horse  cultivation  given  should  be  frequent 
and  should  continue  until  the  leaves  of  the  plants 
come  together  or  nearly  together  between  the  rows. 

Feeding. — The  feeding  of  field  roots  is  a  very 
simple  but  somewhat  tedious  process.  They  are 
pulled  up  by  hand  and  laid  in  piles,  or  thrown  directly 
into  a  hand  barrow,  or  some  form  of  wagon  or  truck 
drawn  by  horses.  Field  roots  should  only  be  thrown 
in  piles  for  future  drawing  when  it  is  not  convenient 
at  the  time  to  have  the  means  of  conveyance  at  hand, 
or  when  there  may  be  opportunity  to  lift  the  plants 
a  few  days  in  advance  of  the  feeding.  This  may  be 
done  in  late  autumn  without  serious  injury  to  the 
plants,  but  not  when  the  weather  is  warm.  The 
roots  are  of  course  handled  with  forks  after  they 
have  been  lifted. 


204  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

They  may  be  fed  in  a  pasture  or  paddock  with 
much  advantage  when  the  surface  is  well  sodded  and 
the  ground  is  in  consequence  clean.  They  may  also 
be  fed  in  the  cattle  manger  or  pig  trough,  but  when 
so  fed  some  watchfulness  is  necessary  in  cleaning  out 
the  loose  earth  from  both  manger  and  trough,  that 
drops  off  the  plants. 

The  feeding  of  the  crop  may  begin  at  any  time 
after  the  roots  have  made  a  growth  somewhat  ad- 
vanced. If  the  feeding  begins  too  early,  there  will 
be  a  loss  of  nutriment  from  want  of  advancement  in 
the  growth  of  the  crop.  If  such  food  is  fed  in  excess 
and  more  especially  at  the  first,  it  will  induce  scouring 
in  the  animals  so  fed.  It  should  only  be  given  to 
cows  in  milk  after  the  milk  has  been  withdrawn  to 
avoid  taint  in  the  milk. 

These  crops  can  probably  be  fed  with  more 
relative  advantage  to  such  animals  as  calves,  sheep 
and  lambs  and  swine,  than  to  matured  cattle.  The 
former  consume  so  much  less  per  animal  than  the 
latter  that  it  is  more  practicable  to  feed  roots  to  them. 
As  a  food  factor  in  feeding  growing  swine  and  brood 
sows,  they  are  peculiarly  helpful,  more  especially 
when  the  root  portion,  that  is  to  say,  the  edible  part  of 
the  root,  has  made  large  development.  But  in  no 
case  should  such  food  be  made  the  sole  factor  in 
feeding  any  kind  of  live  stock. 


CHAPTER  XL 

MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS. 

The  plants  discussed  in  the  previous  chapters 
can  all  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  with  more  or  less  profit. 
In  addition  to  these  are  other  plants,  possessed  of 
more  or  less  adaptability  in  providing  such  food,  but 
their  exact  value  for  this  use  has  not  been  determined. 
The  number  of  these  is  not  very  large  at  the  present 
time,  but  it  will  doubtless  be  increased  as  the  years 
move  on.  These  plants  will  now  be  briefly  discussed. 
The  following  includes  those  which  have  been  con- 
sidered as  possessed  of  sufficient  promise  to  merit  a 
place  in  the  discussion ;  viz. :  White  or  Dutch  clover, 
sweet  clover,  Japan  clover,  sainfoin,  trefoil,  the  horse 
bean,  the  velvet  bean,  kale,  the  sand  vetch,  the  flat 
pea,  white  mustard,  the  lupine,  spurry,  the  artichoke, 
prickly  comfrey  and  sunflower.  Some  of  these 
plants  will  doubtless  be  found  possessed  of  no  little 
value  in  providing  soiling  food  when  they  come 
to  be  better  understood.  Something  will  also  be 
said  of  sacaline,  the  plant  whose  merits  have  been  so 
overdrawn  by  some  seedsmen  and  others  interested 
in  selling  it. 

White  Clover. — White  clover  (Trifolium 
repens),  sometimes  called  Dutch  clover  is  so  well 
known  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  detailed 
description  of  it  It  is  native  to  both  Europe  and 

205 


2C>6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

America.  It  is  already  distributed  more  or  less 
over  nearly  all  the  cultivated  portions  of  the  northern 
and  central  states,  and  in  many  sections  of  the  south- 
ern states  it  has  also  been  successfully  introduced. 
It  would  seem  to  have  the  highest  adaptation  for  clay 
loam  soils  which  were  formerly  covered  with  forests 
of  hard  wood  trees,  or  of  hard  and  soft  woods  grow- 
ing together.  When  these  were  cleared  away  it 
seemed  to  come  in,  as  it  were,  spontaneously,  but 
never  to  the  extent  of  becoming  a  hindrance  to  culti-> 
vation.  The  ordinary  black  loam  soils  of  the  prairie 
are  not  so  well  adapted  to  its  growth,  although  it 
may  be  grown  on  these  with  more  or  less  of  success. 
The  soils  of  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  would  seem 
to  have  supreme  adaptation  for  growing  this  plant 
when  supplied  with  sufficient  moisture,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  arable  lands  west  of  the  Cascade  moun- 
tains. 

White  clover  is  probably  the  hardiest  of  all  the 
species  of  clover,  hence  it  can  be  grown  far  to  the 
north.  As  is  generally  known  white  clover  is  com- 
monly grown  for  pasture  and  usually  in  conjunction 
with  blue  grass.  Where  it  has  been  grown  in  rota- 
tions that  do  not  cover  many  seasons,  it  does  not 
ordinarily  require  to  be  sown  again  when  laying 
down  pastures,  as  in  these  the  plants  will  soon  appear 
and  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  forming  one  of  the 
chief  food  elements.  The  plants  not  only  produce 
others  from  seed,  but  also  by  means  of  runners  which 
at  intervals  send  down  roots  into  the  soil  and  form 
fresh  plants.  But  when  it  is  to  be  grown  as  a  factor 
of  a  hay  crop  it  ought  to  be  sown  along  with  the 
other  seeds  that  are  designed  to  furnish  the  hay, 


MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS.  2O? 

otherwise  it  is  not  likely  to  furnish  any  considerable 
proportion  of  the  same  the  first  season. 

Because  of  the  relative  lack  of  bulk  in  the  crop, 
it  is  seldom  sown  by  itself  for  the  express  purpose  of 
providing  soiling  food,  nor  is  it  often  sown  in  con- 
junction with  other  clovers  or  grasses  for  such  a 
purpose.  Nevertheless  there  may  be  instances  when 
it  would  be  eminently  wise  to  sow  it  in  conjunction 
with  common  red,  or  alsike  clover,  when  it  is  to  be 
cut  for  soiling  food.  It  adds  to  the  fineness  of  the 
food  and  also  to  its  bulk.  It  matures  a  little  later 
than  medium  red  clover,  hence  there  is  probably  some 
advantage  from  sowing  it  with  the  alsike.  But  it 
should  never  be  sown  to  provide  soiling  food,  except 
under  conditions  of  marked  adaptation  for  growing 
it  successfully.  When  thus  sown  not  more  than  one 
or  two  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre,  as  the 
seeds  are  quite  small  relatively.  The  quantity  of  the 
seed  of  the  other  kind  sown  should  also  be  reduced 
by  about  twice  the  quantity  of  the  white  clover  added 
to  the  other  seed  sown. 

Sweet  Clover. — Sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba) 
sometimes  called  Bokhara  clover,  is  branching  in  its 
habit  of  growth,  and  it  is  of  wide  distribution.  No 
plant  of  the  clover  family  will  grow  over  so  wide  an 
area  and  under  conditions  so  unpromising.  The 
heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  would  seem 
to  be  alike  unable  to  kill  it.  While  it  can  be  grown 
on  the  stiffest  clays,  it  will  also  grow  and  thrive  on 
sandy  soils  so  light  that  the  winds  will  carry  them, 
and  so  lacking  in  plant  food  as  to  be  quite  bare  of 
grass  during  all  the  year.  It  will  also  flourish  in 
regions  so  dry  as  to  forbid  the  successful  growth  of 


2O8  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

other  clovers  in  the  absence  of  irrigation.  And  more- 
over, it  is  a  plant  that  not  only  fills  the  soil  with  a 
mass  of  strong  roots  which  penetrate  the  same  in 
various  directions  and  which  go  down  deeply  into  the 
subsoil  to  gather  food,  but  it  has  also  much  power 
to  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  to  deposit  the 
same  in  the  subsoil. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  powers  of  growth 
with  which  sweet  clover  is  endowed,  it  has  been  but 
little  cultivated  as  yet  to  provide  food  for  domestic 
animals.  The  odor  of  this  plant  is  highly  fragrant, 
but  the  stalks  and  buds  possess  a  bitterness  of  taste 
which  seems,  to  a  considerable  extent  at  least,  to 
detract  from  its  palatability.  The  stems  also  become 
woody  at  a  comparatively  early  stage  of  development. 

Heretofore  sweet  clover  has  been  chiefly  grown 
in  America  to  provide  food  for  bees,  but  in  some 
instances  it  has  been  sown  to  hinder  the  washing 
down  of  the  earth  from  embankments,  which  wall  in 
the  cuttings  made  in  building  railroads.  More  com- 
monly it  is  found  growing  in  vagrant  fashion  along 
the  roadsides  and  in  waste  places,  where  it  is  main- 
tained through  self  seeding.  Because  of  this  vagrant 
habit  of  growth,  sweet  clover  has  been  proscribed  as 
a  weed  pest  by  the  laws  of  several  states. 

It  would  seem  too  bad  to  allow  a  plant  possessed 
of  so  many  redeeming  qualities  to  be  forever  treated 
as  a  fugitive.  The  author  cannot  but  feel  hopeful 
that  some  time  in  the  future  when  the  seed  becomes 
more  plentiful  and  consequently  cheaper,  sweet  clover 
will  be  sown  on  wide  areas  in  the  semi-arid  belt 
along  with  small  grain  such  as  wheat,  oats  and 
barley,  to  help  to  sustain  fertility  and  to  increase  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  2OQ 

content  of  moisture  in  the  soil  by  means 
of  the  increase  in  humus  which  it  brings 
to  the  soil.  This  can  be  done  by  sow- 
ing the  sweet  clover  at  the  same  time  that  the 
grain  is  sown  in  the  spring  and  by  plowing  the  crop 
under  the  following  spring  after  it  has  made  a  vigor- 
ous growth  and  in  time  to  plant  corn  or  sorghum. 

Whether  sweet  clover  can  be  made  to  furnish 
green  food  for  live  stock  in  the  summer  season  is 
problematical.  No  class  of  domestic  animals  is  fond 
of  it,  but  taste  in  animals,  as  in  individuals,  is  largely 
the  outcome  of  habit.  May  it  not  be  possible,  there- 
fore, so  to  develop  in  these  a  relish  for  this  plant 
which  would  justify  growing  it  to  feed  to  them  as 
soiling  food?  In  sections  where  the  other  clovers 
will  grow,  it  would  probably  be  a  waste  of  time  to 
try  experiments  of  such  a  character,  but  in  other 
localities  it  may  be  eminently  proper  to  conduct  them. 
This  plant  is  sometimes  made  into  hay  which  is  con- 
sumed on  the  farm.  Why  then  should  it  be  looked 
upon  as  a  waste  of  time  under  all  conditions  to 
experiment  in  feeding  sweet  clover  as  a  soiling  food  ? 

Japan  Clover. — Japan  clover  (Lespedesa 
striata)  has  been  grown  in  some  of  the  southern 
states  for  several  years.  Little  or  nothing  has  been 
published  regarding  its  behavior  in  the  northern 
states.  But  in  such  of  the  latter  as  produce  the 
leading  sorts  of  clover  hi  good  form,  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  grow  so 
diminutive  a  plant"  as  Japan  clover,  even  though  it 
should  be  able  to  withstand  the  rigors  of  the  winter 
climate.  That  it  can  withstand  those  rigors  is  not 
probable,  since  notwithstanding  the  number  of  years 

14 


2IO  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

during  which  it  has  been  grown  in  the  southern  states 
no  one  apparently  is  growing  it  in  the  northern 
states. 

Japan  clover  is  a  low  growing  plant  which 
seldom  exceeds  the  hight  of  sixteen  inches.  It  is  an 
annual,  but  when  not  grazed  down  too  closely  or  cut 
too  early  it  has  much  power  to  reseed  itself.  Since 
it  grows  readily  on  hard  surfaces,  this  property  may 
be  turned  to  good  account.  It  is  considerably 
branched  and  has  a  blue  flower.  It  may  be  grown 
on  dry  soils,  but  will  of  course  make  a  more  vigorous 
growth  on  good  loam  soils.  On  the  former  it  only 
attains  the  hight  of  a  few  inches,  and  is  used  as  pas- 
ture. On  the  more  productive  soils  it  is  grown  for 
hay.  From  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  seed  are  sown 
per  acre. 

Where  Japan  clover  furnishes  sufficient  bulk  to 
justify  growing  it  for  hay,  it  may  also  be  grown  as 
soiling  food.  It  will  not  of  course  produce  nearly  so 
much  food  per  acre  as  the  sorghums,  either  saccharine 
or  non-saccharine,  but  it  may  be  grown  on  soils 
where  these  would  not  produce  abundantly  without 
being  fertilized.  And  it  may  also  be  grown  with 
much  less  outlay  for  labor. 

Sainfoin. — Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  saliva)  is  a 
plant  that  grows  rapidly  and  vigorously  under  suit- 
able conditions.  It  is  sometimes  called  Aspersette  or 
Esparsette.  It  is  a  legume  of  the  clover  family, 
and  is  much  branched  and  spreading  in  its  habit 
of  growth.  The  flowers  are  of  a  beautiful  crimson 
tint  and  it  seeds  profusely  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. In  some  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  the 
south  of  England  and  in  France,  it  has  long  been 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  211 

grown  to  provide  pasture  for  sheep  and  green  food 
for  horses  and  cattle.  It  has  special  adaptation  for 
dry  calcareous  soils. 

Sainfoin  bears  no  little  resemblance  to  alfalfa 
in  its  habit  of  growth.  Like  alfalfa  it  will  pro- 
vide two  or  more  cuttings  of  soiling  food  or 
of  hay  in  a  single  season,  and  when  established 
will  retain  its  hold  upon  the  soil  for  a  number  of 
years,  though  not  for  so  long  a  period  as  alfalfa. 
The  same  care  is  also  required  in  making  it  into 
hay,  or  many  of  the  leaves  will  be  lost  while  it  is 
thus  being  cured.  Because  of  its  early  and  quick 
growth  it  is  ready  for  being  cut  earlier  than  red 
clover.  It  is  thought  to  be  adapted  to  conditions 
more  dry  than  would  be  suited  to  growing  alfalfa 
in  the  absence  of  irrigation.  It  is  rather  adapted  to 
mild  than  to  cold  climates.  9 

But  little  can  be  gleaned  from  the  reports  of  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations  with  reference  to 
the  growth  of  sainfoin.  It  would  almost  seem  as 
though  it  had  entirely  escaped  the  attention  of  experi- 
menters in  this  country,  and  yet  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  place  for  it  in  our  agriculture  as  a  pasture  and  also 
as  a  soiling  crop.  It  is  claimed  that  when  pasturing 
it  there  is  no  danger  from  hoven  or  bloat  as  \vhen 
pasturing  alfalfa,  or  red  clover. 

Sainfoin  has  been  grown  with  much  success  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Deer  Lodge,  Mont.,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  it  can  be  grown  with  equal 
success  in  nearly  all  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys 
northward  from  Montana  and  also  between  the 
coast  range  and  the  Pacific.  The  seed  is  frequently 
sown  while  yet  in  the  sac,  and  when  thus  sown  from 


212  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

four  to  five  bushels  of  seed  are  used  per  acre.  Much 
care  is  necessary  in  saving  the  seed,  as  it  shatters 
out  easily  and  it  also  heats  readily  when  stored. 
The  loss  in  germinating  power  in  the  seed  when 
it  is  thus  managed  is  responsible  for  many  failures 
in  growing  this  crop. 

Trefoil. — Trefoil  (Medlcago  lupulina)  some- 
times called  yellow  clover  is  of  several  varieties. 
There  are  but  few  places  in  America  in  which  it 
has  come  markedly  into  favor.  Like  white  clover 
(Trifoliwm  rep  ens)  it  is  of  wide  distribution,  but 
the  localities  are  still  very  numerous  in  this  country 
in  which  trefoil  has  not  been  tried.  It  has  much 
affinity  for  limestone  soils  when  once  introduced 
into  these.  So  persistent  is  it  oftentimes  in  its 
habit  of  growth  that  it  is  in  a  sense  troublesome 
where  growing  ^crops  are  to  be  cultivated. 

Trefoil  is  recumbent  in  its  habit  of  growth,  and 
in  many  localities  it  is  a  diminutive  plant,  but  in 
congenial  soils  it  attains  a  considerable  size.  It  is 
more  commonly  grown  along  with  various  other 
plants  in  pastures  that  are  intended  to  be  permanent 
in  character.  Its  ability  to  maintain  itself  in  these 
helps  to  increase  its  value  as  a  pasture  plant.  Be- 
cause of  want  of  bulk  in  the  growth  produced,  tre- 
foil is  not  likely  to  become  popular  as  a  hay  plant  or 
as  a  soiling  food.  But  doubtless  there  are  areas 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  where  it  would 
pay  to  sow  more  or  less  of  the  seed  of  trefoil  along 
with  other  clover  seed  that  is  sown  to  furnish  soil- 
ing food.  When  thus  grown  it  would  add  to  the 
bulk  and  to  the  fineness  of  the  growth  in  the  crop. 
It  may  yet  be  sown  on  the  western  slopes  of  Oregon 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  213 

and  Washington  between  the  mountains  and  the 
sea. 

The  Horse  Bean. — The  horse  bean  (Vida  fab  a) 
is  doubtless  so  named  from  the  extent  to  which  it  can 
be  used  in  feeding  horses  in  countries  where  its 
growth  has  been  found  profitable.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Scotch  bean,  from  the  extent  to  which  it 
is  grown  in  that  country  even  almost  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  other  sorts  of  the  bean  family.  The 
damp  and  temperate  climate  of  Great  Britain  and 
especially  of  Scotland  has  peculiar  adaptation  for 
the  growth  of  the  horse  bean.  It  is  a  hardy  and 
vigorous  grower.  The  plants  sometimes  attain  a 
higfht  of  four  feet  and  even  a  greater  hight.  The 
pods  are  numerous  and  contain  from  three  to  five 
beans  of  a  large  size.  The  average  yield  per  acre 
in  Scotland  is  not  far  from  thirty  bushels. 

The  Scotch  bean  has  been  found  to  furnish  an 
excellent  food  for  horses  and  other  domestic  animals. 
It  is  best  adapted  to  strong  loam  soils  of  good  drain- 
age. It  is  usual  to  grow  the  beans  in  rows  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  inches  distant  from  one  another, 
and  to  cultivate  the  crop  as  other  beans  are  culti- 
vated. The  aim  is  to  have  the  beans  about  two  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  To  grow  them  thus  would  require 
from  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

The  horse  bean  has  not  been  much  tried  under 
American  conditions.  It  has  been  grown  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  however  by  dairymen  in  the  vicinity 
of  Montreal,  Can.  In  the  more  dry  climate  of 
western  Ontario,  however,  the  crop  has  not  proved 
a  success.  The  author  has  not  been  able  to  secure 
a  good  growth  of  straw  or  of  leaves  in  western 


214  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Ontario  or  in  Minnesota,  but  has  seen  plants  growing 
vigorously  in  the  Puget  Sound  country  in  Washing- 
ton. Wherever  the  summer  temperatures  run  high, 
the  horse  bean  will  not  succeed.  In  this  fact  we 
have  the  explanation  of  the  greater  success  which 
attends  its  growth  in  Scotland  than  in  the  south  of 
England  or  in  Ireland. 

In  North  America  the  climatic  conditions  best 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  plant  will  probably 
be  found  in  the  New  England  states,  in  the  Mari- 
time provinces  of  Canada,  and  in  the  country  bor- 
dering on  the  Pacific  north  from  Portland,  Ore., 
and  west  of  the  most  northerly  range  of  the  Rocky 
mountains.  In  those  areas  this  plant  should  cer- 
tainly be  tried  as  a  soiling  crop.  In  growing  it 
some  large  variety  of  peas  sown  along  with  the 
beans  would  probably  add  to  the  bulk  of  the  fodder 
without  lessening  the  quality  of  the  same. 

The  Velvet  Bean. — The  velvet  bean  (Mucuna 
utilis)  is  a  vine-like  plant  which  has  been  grown  for 
several  years  past  in  some  sections  of  the  Gulf 
states  as  a  trellis  shade.  During  recent  years  it  has 
come  to  be  regarded  with  more  or  less  favor  as  a 
food  for  live  stock,  as  a  mulch  for  orchards,  and 
as  a  means  of  fertilizing  and  otherwise  improving 
them  where  the  land  can  be  tilled.  'While  it  is  not 
considered  suitable  for  providing  pasture,  it  is 
favorably  spoken  of  as  a  soiling  food,  and  the  hay  is 
said  to  be  superior  to  that  made  from  cowpeas,  since 
it  is  less  coarse  in  character.  The  seeds  are  very 
rich  in  protein,  and  both  vines  and  grain  are  said 
to  be  much  relished  by  live  stock.  It  has  been  given 
very  high  praise  as  a  source  of  fertility,  owing  to 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  215 

the  great  power  which  it  is  said  to  possess  of  draw- 
ing nitrogen  from  the  air. 

When  grown  as  a  food  crop  the  velvet  bean 
sends  out  runners  in  every  direction  as  watermelons 
do,  and  the  vines  thus  thrown  out  are  frequently 
ten  to  twenty  feet  long.  They  eventually  cover  the 
ground  with  a  rank  mass  of  vegetation  fifteen  to 
twenty  inches  deep.  The  seeds  should  not  be  planted 
nearer  to  fruit  trees  of  a  dwarfish  habit  of  growth 
than  five  or  six  feet,  lest  trouble  should  arise  from 
the  vines  climbing  up  into  the  trees  and  extending 
around  the  branches.  It  begins  to  fruit  not  far  from 
the  root  of  the  plant,  and  pods  appear  in  clusters  at 
intervals  all  along  the  length  of  the  vine.  These 
pods  are  brown  and  velvety  in  character,  hence 
probably  the  name,  velvet  bean.  It  has  been  affirmed 
that  the  yield  of  seed  on  average  soils  is  from  twenty 
to  thirty  bushels  per  acre. 

Because  of  the  dense  shade  which  the  velvet 
bean  produces,  it  has  been  found  valuable  in  smoth- 
ering various  kinds  of  noxious  weeds  and  grasses, 
particularly  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  Dactyl  on) 
and  nut  grass  (Cyperus  rotundus).  The  dense  cov- 
ering which  it  furnishes  to  the  ground  retards  in  a 
marked  degree  the  escape  of  moisture.  In  dry 
weather  therefore  the  service  thus  rendered  is  in- 
valuable to  orchards. 

The  velvet  bean  is  commonly  planted  in  rows. 
Five  feet  has  been  named  as  a  suitable  distance 
between  them.  From  three  to  five  beans  are  planted 
in  hills  at  short  intervals  along  the  line  of  the  row. 
The  seed  should  be  planted  early  in  the  season  but 
not  until  the  weather  has  become  warm.  The 


2l6  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

cultivation  given  is  the  same  as  for  other  beans  until 
the  runners  extend  so  far  that  it  cannot  be  longer 
continued. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  velvet  bean  can 
be  successfully  grown  when  all  the  conditions  are 
quite  favorable  to  the  growth  of  Indian  corn,  but 
this  claim  is  probably  extravagant  since  even  in 
Louisiana  the  plants  do  not  always  mature  all  the 
seed  produced.  It  is  questionable  if  the  velvet  bean 
in  its  present  form  can  be  made  to  render  substantial 
benefits  to  agriculture  as  far  north  as  the  fortieth 
parallel  of  latitude.  That  it  will  be  greatly  helpful 
to  the  farmers  of  the  Gulf  states  is  more  than  prob- 
able, but  rather  as  a  soil  cleaner  and  a  soil  renovator 
than  in  producing  soiling  food.  Owing  to  the 
vine-like  habit  of  growth  which  it  possesses  it 
is  likely  to  prove  somewhat  difficult  to  harvest. 
It  will  not  be  easy  to  cut  the  vines  cleanly, 
and  it  will  be  more  difficult  still  to  handle  them 
when  cut. 

Kale. — Kale  (Brassica  oleracea)  is  of  the  same 
species  of  plants  as  cabbage.  In  fact,  kale  may  be 
said  to  mean  any  variety  of  headless  cabbage  with 
curled  or  crinkled  leaves.  And  yet,  paradoxical  as 
it  may  seem,  there  is  a  variety  of  kale  grown  in  Great 
Britain  popularly  spoken  of  as  the  "thousand-headed 
kale."  It  is  so  called  from  the  many  miniature  heads 
which  it  produces  on  its  numerous  branches.  It  is 
much  prized  by  flockmasters  as  a  food  for  lambs. 
Some  varieties  of  kale  are  very  attractive  in  color 
and  also  in  the  crinkled  character  of  the  leaves.  In 
the  United  States  kale  has  been  chiefly  grown  here- 
tofore in  gardens  for  its  leaves  which  are  boiled  as 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  217 

potherbs.  Thousands  of  acres  are  grown  annually 
but  chiefly  for  culinary  uses. 

The  author  has  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  in- 
formation with  reference  to  growing  it  for  pasture 
from  an  American  source  other  than  what  has  been 
furnished  by  the  Minnesota  University  Experiment 
station.  The  experiments  there  conducted  have 
sustained  the  view  that  kale  has  much  of  adaptation 
for  our  conditions,  but  not  more  probably  than 
Dwarf  Essex  rape.  When  sown  early  in  the  season 
at  the  aforementioned  station,  the  plants  reached  a 
maximum  of  growth  by  early  midsummer,  and  when 
not  fed  soon  after  reaching  that  stage  of  develop- 
ment, not  a  few  of  the  leaves  shrank  and  withered, 
but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  dwarf  essex  rape  leaves 
grown  under  similar  conditions.  When  sown  later, 
the  plants  retained  their  greenness  and  freshness  until 
the  closing  in  of  winter.  The  growth  was  on  the 
whole  not  quite  so  rapid  as  the  growth  of  rape,  but 
the  pasture  furnished  was  equally  relished  with  rape 
pasture. 

There  is  but  little  doubt  that  kale  can  be  grown 
with  more  or  less  success  in  the  climate  of  the 
United  States  wherever  rape  can  be  grown  in  good 
form.  It  would  also  seem  to  be  equally  probable 
that  it  will  furnish  soiling  food  that  may  be  fed  in 
the  same  way  as  rape.  So  far  as  tried  in  this  country, 
kale  does  not  seem  to  have  any  advantage  over  rape 
as  a  food  plant,  that  would  justify  discarding  the 
latter  and  growing  the  former  in  its  stead. 

The  Sand  Vetch. — The  sand  vetch  (Viola  vil- 
losa)  is  being  tested  by  several  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tions, more  especially  by  those  in  the  southern  states. 


2l8  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

It  has  also  been  tested  in  a  limited  way  by  individual 
farmers.  Some  who  have  tested  this  plant  speak  en- 
couragingly of  its  value  as  a  hay  crop.  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Author  its  highest  use  as  a  food  plant 
for  stock  will  be  found  in  the  pasture  which  it 
furnishes,  and  this  opinion  is  based  on  the  results  ob- 
tained from  growing  it  in  various  ways  at  the 
Minnesota  University  Experiment  station. 

It  is  an  annual  but  should  be  sown  in  the  autumn 
rather  than  the  spring  in  climates  where  it  will  sur- 
vive the  winter,  but  when  sown  in  the  spring  a  good 
growth  is  frequently  .made.  The  plants  grow  but 
slowly  for  a  time,  but  when  once  firmly  rooted  run- 
ners are  thrown  out  in  all  directions  and  the  ground 
is  covered  with  a  dense  mass  of  vegetation.  But 
the  runners  become  so  intertwined  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  cut  them  or  to  pull  them  apart  when 
cut.  Because  of  this  the  sand  vetch  is  not  likely  to 
become  popular  as  soiling  food  when  sown  alone. 
But  if  sown  as  a  mixed  crop,  as  with  oats  or  some 
other  kind  of  grain,  the  grain  acts  in  a  considerable 
degree  as  a  support  to  the  tendrils  of  vetch.  When 
thus  grown,  the  mixed  crop  may  be  cut  without  much 
difficulty  and  used  as  soiling  food  or  as  hay. 

When  sown  in  the  spring  and  thus  used  the 
plants  make  much  aftergrowth  which  may  be  pas- 
tured until  the  advent  of  winter  by  sheep  or  cattle. 
When  sown  alone  not  less  than  four  pecks  of  seed 
should  be  used,  but  when  sown  with  another  crop  the 
amount  of  the  vetch  seed  to  use  should  be  decreased 
proportionately  as  the  seed  of  the  other  crop  is  used. 
The  relatively  dear  price  of  the  seed  in  the  past  has 
hindered  the  extensive  growth  of  this  plant. 


II 


22O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

The  sand  vetch  will  probably  survive  the  winter 
except  in  situations  much  exposed  north  of  the  forty- 
third  parallel,  and  in  certain  areas  it  will  probably 
live  one  or  two  degrees  further  to  the  north.  It  has 
always  perished  in  the  winter  in  the_  trials  made  at 
the  Minnesota  University  Experiment  farm,  but  on 
the  Pacific  coast  it  ought  to  succeed  as  far  north  as 
Alaska.  East  of  the  Rocky  mountains  it  is  not  likely 
to  prove  of  much  value  to  the  agriculture  of  Canada. 

As  the  name  implies,  the  sand  vetch  has  much 
power  to  grow  on  sandy  soils,  and  soils  low  in  fer- 
tility. Its  highest  use  will  probably  be  found  in 
enriching  such  lands  since  it  is  a  legume.  Its  next 
highest  value  will  probably  be  found  in  the  pasture 
which  it  furnishes,  more  especially  in  southern  lati- 
tudes. But  it  will  also  be  grown  more  or  less  for 
soiling  food  and  for  hay  and  more  especially  in  con- 
junction with  some  other  crop. 

The  Flat  Pea., — The  flat  pea  (Lathyrus  sylves* 
tris),  although  tried  more  or  less  fully  by  not  a  few 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  the  United 
States,  has  not  come  into  much  favor.  Some  of  the 
experimenters  pronounce  against  it  and  others 
speak  discouragingly  with  reference  to  it.  No  one 
who  has  tried  this  plant  in  America  is  enthusiastic 
over  it.  In  no  instances  have  more  than  two  good 
cuttings  been  reported  per  year. 

The  flat  pea  is  a  perennial.  It  is  partly  upright 
and  partly  vine-like  in  its  habit  of  growth.  The 
stems  intertwine  considerably  but  not  so  much  as 
do  those  of  the  sand  vetch  (Vicia  villosa).  The 
plants  bear  no  little  resemblance  to  those  of  the  grass 
pea,  but  are  considerably  larger  and  coarser.  They 


MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS.  221 

are  slow  in  becoming  established,  but  in  soils  adapted 
to  their  growth  they  will  live  for  many  years, 
although  American  experience  has  not  yet  determined 
how  many,  unless  in  states  where  the  winters  are  too 
cold  for  growing  it  successfully.  Though  it  stands 
the  winters  of  southern  Ontario  it  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon  to  endure  those  of  northern  Minnesota. 

The  seed  is  more  commonly  sown  in  rows  from 
thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart,  and  in  sowing  the 
same  the  aim  is  to  have  the  plants  only  a  few  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  The  seed  germinates  slowly. 
When  this  fact  is  linked  with  the  slow  growth  the 
plants  make  the  first  season,  the  necessity  for  clean 
cultivation  during  that  period  of  the  development 
will  be  apparent.  The  plants  gradually  extend  so 
as  to  occupy  all  the  ground.  In  some  areas  they 
produce  seed  but  shyly,  more  especially  where  the 
rainfall  is  abundant  and  the  growth  of  the  crop  is 
vigorous. 

That  the  flat  pea  will  ever  be  extensively  grown 
as  a  producer  of  soiling  food  in  the  northern  states 
and  in  the  middle  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  river 
is  at  least  problematical,  and  for  the  following 
reasons : — i,  The  plants  do  not  usually  produce 
a  full  crop  until  the  third  year  from  the  time  of 
planting,  and  the  seed  is  likely  to  be  dear  for  several 
years  to  come;  2,  other  crops  can  be  grown 
more  easily,  that  are  quite  as  productive  of  forage, 
that  are  more  easily  handled  and  that  are  more 
highly  relished  by  live  stock;  3,  the  lack  of 
palatability  which  experimenters  complain  of  will 
tell  against  the  introduction  of  the  plant,  but  this 
may  be  overcome  in  part  at  least  by  persistent 


222  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

feeding  for  a  period  more  or  less  prolonged;  4. 
the  plants  are  not  easily  harvested  owing  to  the  in- 
tertwining habit  of  growth  in  the  tendrils.  Never- 
theless it  would  not  be  prudent  to  claim  that  there 
is  no  place  for  the  flat  pea  in  our  agriculture.  It 
may  yet  be  grown  to  provide  soiling  food  or  pasture 
in  the  south  and  also  in  the  far  west.  The  sands  of 
the  semi-arid  country  may  yet  be  made  to  produce 
this  crop  where,  in  the  absence  of  irrigation,  they 
will  not  produce  much  else.  It  is  at  least  worthy  of 
further  trial  in  the  volcanic  soils  of  the  western 
mountain  plateaus. 

White  Mustard. — White  mustard  (Sinapis 
alba)is  grown  more  or  less  as  a  food  for  live  stock 
in  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  Heretofore 
it  has  been  grown  chiefly  in  gardens,  only,  in 
America.  But  in  this  country,  as  in  Europe,  it  may 
doubtless  be  turned  to  good  account  in  furnishing 
food  for  live  stock.  But  when  so  fed  it  should  be 
as  a  part  of  a  ration  rather  than  as  the  whole.  When 
thus  fed  in  proper  combinations,  it  acts  as  a  corrector 
of  digestion.  When  fed  with  rape,  for  instance,  it 
lessens  the  danger  from  bloating.  When  grown 
as  a  green  food  therefore  it  should  be  along  with 
some  such  crop  as  rape,  and  the  two  plants  can  be 
cut  and  fed  together.  But  there  is  a  higher  value 
from  growing  white  mustard  along  with  rape  which 
is  to  be  pastured  off.  When  thus  grown  the  tops  of 
the  mustard  plants  being  taller  than  those  of  the 
rape  are  likely  to  be  eaten  first,  so  that  the  danger  of 
bloating  is  thereby  lessened.  Mustard  is  not  suffi- 
ciently nutritious  to  rely  upon  it  as  the  sole  food 
fed  for  any  prolonged  period.  Since  it  is  a  quick 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  223 

growing  plant,  it  will  in  time  come  more  or  less  into 
favor  as  a  crop  to  grow  for  plowing  under,  but  not 
until  the  price  of  seed  falls  lower  than  it  has  been  in 
the  past. 

White  mustard  may  be  sown  any  time  after 
the  danger  of  spring  frost  is  past.  And  the  crop 
should  be  fed  or  plowed  under  before  the  frosts  of 
autumn  blight  it.  Since  it  grows  rapidly  it  may  be 
grown  as  a  catch  crop  and  in  various  ways.  A  few 
pounds  of  seed  will  suffice  to  sow  an  acre  when  the 
mustard  is  the  sole  occupant  of  the  land,  and  when 
sown  along  with  another  crop  as  rape,  or  kale,  the 
proportion  of  the  mustard  seed  should  not  be  more 
than  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of  the  whole.  Although 
mustard  will  grow  vigorously  on  almost  any  kind  of 
soil  possessed  of  a  fair  amount  of  plant  food,  and 
although  it  will  make  considerable  growth,  even  on 
soils  low  in  fertility,  it  has  a  peculiar  affinity  for 
loam  soils  abounding  in  lime.  It  grows  so  rapidly 
that  under  some  conditions  it  will  be  in  full  bloom 
in  six  weeks  from  the  date  of  sowing.  It  should 
be  fed  rather  before  than  at  the  blossoming  stage, 
since  the  stalks  quickly  become  woody.  It  is  prob- 
able that  mustard  fed  in  large  quantities  to  cows  in 
milk  would  impart  something  of  a  pungent  taste  to 
the  milk.  When  plowed  under  the  plants  should 
not  be  allowed  to  get  beyond  the  blooming  stage. 

There  is  no  danger  as  with  black  or  brown 
mustard  that  the  seeds  will  remain  in  the  soil  and 
thus  make  trouble.  White  mustard  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  black  or  brown  by  the  rough 
hairs  which  cover  the  stems  of  the  white  kind,  and 
by  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  pods  which  terminate 


224  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

in  a  broad  two  edged  shaped  beak.  The  seeds  are 
larger  than  those  of  black  mustard  and  are  white 
externally. 

The  Lupine. — The  lupine  is  of  many  species 
and  is  native  to  both  the  old  and  new  worlds.  Some 
of  the  sorts  are  domesticated,  others  of  them  still 
grow  wild.  The  white  lupine  (Lupinus  albus)  is 
probably  the  most  valuable  among  the  cultivated 
species.  It  is  an  annual.  The  lupine  derives  its 
name  from  lupus,  a  wolf,  and  because  of  its  vora- 
cious qualities.  The  long  tap  roots  of  the  white 
lupine  go  down  deeply  into  the  soil  and  there  they 
gather  plant  food,  much  of  which  is  deposited  in 
the  surface  soil.  It  also  produces  a  very  consider- 
able quantity  of  vegetable  matter  the  decay  of  which 
adds  fertility  to  the  soil. 

The  cultivation  of  the  white  lupine  in  Portu- 
gal has  been  the  means  of  restoring  vast  tracts  of 
worn  out  soils.  It  has  also  been  much  grown  in 
Germany  to  increase  the  producing  power  of 
sandy  tracts  low  in  fertility.  In  Italy,  Sicily  and 
other  Mediterranean  countries  it  is  extensively  cul- 
tivated for  forage,  as  green  manure  and  also  for 
the  seeds. 

The  attempts  made  by  the  author  to  grow  the 
lupine  at  the  Minnesota  University  Experiment 
station  have  not  been  successful.  The  plants 
made  but  little  growth,  and  yet  it  is  almost  certain 
that  there  are  extensive  areas  in  the  United 
States  in  which  the  growth  of  the  lupine  would 
be  eminently  successful  and  helpful  to  the  cause 
of  agriculture.  These  can  only  be  determined  by 
experiment. 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  225 

Jpurry. — Spurry  (Spergula  arvensis)  is  a 
quick  growing  plant  which  may  be  raised  success- 
fully on  lands  too  light  and  hungry  to  produce  good 
crops  of  clover  even  where  the  climatic  conditions 
are  suitable.  It  has  special  adaptation  for  the  light 
soils  of  Great  Britain  and  in  Denmark,  Holland, 
Belgium  and  some  parts  of  Germany  and  Russia  it 
is  extensively  grown  as  pasture  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
It  is  also  grown  as  soiling  food,  as  fodder  and  as 
green  manure. 

Spurry  is  a  little  plant  with  innumerable 
branches  and  foliage  very  fine  in  character.  It 
seldom  grows  to  a  greater  hight  than  twenty  inches, 
and  the  average  hight  is  considerably  less.  The 
plants  have  some  resemblance  to  those  of  flax  and 
the  same  is  true  of  the  seeds.  The  blossoms  are 
white  and  are  very  tiny.  The  stems  interlace  some- 
what so  that  one  is  apt  to  trip  in  walking  through 
a  field  of  spurry  in  an  advanced  stage  of  growth.  It 
is  frequently  ready  for  being  pastured  or  cut  as  soil- 
ing food  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks  from  the  date  of 
sowing  the  seed. 

The  attempts  made  at  the  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity experiment  farm  to  grow  spurry  have  not 
met  with  much  success.  Those  made  on  the  light 
sandy  soils  at  Grayling,  Mich.,  have  been  more 
successful.  The  highest  success  in  growing  the 
plant  in  the  United  States  will  probably  be  attained 
on  light  sandy  soils  and  under  climatic  conditions 
which  furnish  ample  moisture.  Whether  it  will 
ever  be  grown  at  all  extensively  in  this  country,  in 
providing  soiling  food,  cannot  now  be  predicted  with 
certainty.  But  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  will  be 
I* 


226  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

made  to  render  more  effective  service  by  growing 
it  as  a  pasture  or  as  a  green  manure. 

The  Artichoke. — The  Jerusalem  artichoke 
(Helianthus  tuberosus)  has  been  mentioned  as  pos- 
sessed of  some  value  in  providing  soiling  food  and 
forage,  but  the  stalks  are  too  large  and  woody  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  a  good  soiling  or  forage 
crop.  Cattle  will  doubtless  consume  the  outer  por- 
tions of  the  stems  and  branches  and  may  in  time 
become  fond  of  them,  but  they  are  unable  to  con- 
sume the  coarse  woody  stems.  And  there  is  the  fur- 
ther objection  that  the  stalks  are  difficult  to  handle. 

This  plant  how-ever  may  be  turned  to  excellent 
account  in  providing  forage  for  swine  or  winter 
food  for  other  classes  of  live  stock.  When  con- 
sumed by  swine  they  feed  upon  the  tubers  where 
they  grew.  The  artichokes  are  thus  eaten  in  the 
autumn  and  winter  and  even  in  the  spring  where 
the  climate  does  not  forbid  the  same.  The  plants 
will  render  higher  service  in  thus  providing  food  in 
areas  favored  with  mild  climates,  but  they  may  be 
successfully  grown  in  some  part  or  parts  of  every 
state  in  the  Union  and  of  every  province  in  Canada. 
There  are  several  varieties.  The  Brazilian  is  the 
most  commonly  grown  but  the  French  Improved 
will  give  larger  yields  when  grown  on  congenial 
soil. 

Prickly  Comfrey. — Prickly  comfrey  (Symp- 
hytum  officinale)  has  been  grown  successfully  as  a 
soiling  food  in  Great  Britain  and  other  countries  of 
Europe  for  many  years.  Some  experiments  have 
been  made  in  growing  it  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  reports  from  these  are  conflicting.  These 


228  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

reports  agree  first  in  regard  to  the  productiveness  of 
the  plants,  and  second  in  regard  to  the  ability  of  the 
same  to  grow  on  light  lands  not  possessed  of  high 
fertility.  They  also  agree  in  speaking  of  the  little 
relish  which  live  stock  manifest  for  prickly  comfrey 
when  it  is  first  fed  to  them.  But  they  do  not  agree 
as  to  its  value  for  soiling  uses.  When  fed  to  live 
stock  at  the  Ontario  agricultural  college  farm,  the 
live  stock  did  not  manifest  any  fondness  for  it. 
Some  other  experiment  stations  have  reported  simi- 
larly. It  may  be  that  domestic  animals  may  be  edu- 
cated to  eat  it,  so  that  ultimately  they  will  manifest 
a  fondness  for  it.  Were  it  otherwise  there  would 
seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  for  growing  it  to  the 
considerable  extent  to  which  it  is  grown  in  several 
of  the  countries  of  Europe. 

Prickly  comfrey  is  a  large  leaved  plant  which 
grows  to  the  hight  of  three  or  four  feet.  The 
leaves  are  long  and  narrow,  and  mucilaginous  in 
character.  The  leaves  only  are  eaten.  Enormous 
crops  can  be  grown.  This  plant  is  propagated  by 
means  of  the  roots  and  in  about  the  same  manner  as 
rhubarb,  that  is  to  say,  pie  plant.  The  roots  are 
fleshy,  something  like  dock  roots,  and  they  go  down 
to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  soil. 

This  plant  is  not  likely  to  be  grown  as  a  soiling 
food,  at  least  to  any  great  extent,  on  the  arable  soils 
of  the  northern  and  central  states,  where  other  and 
better  soiling  plants  are  or  may  be  grown  so  numer- 
ously. It  may  be  different  however  in  the  southern 
states  where  cultivated  grasses  of  the  better  yielding 
varieties  grow  but  shyly.  A  plant  that  has  rendered 
service  in  providing  soiling  food  even  in  England 


23O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

where  soiling  foods  grow  in  such  variety,  is  at  least 
well  worthy  of  a  fair  trial  in  all  those  sections  of 
the  United  States  which  are  possessed  of  fair  adapta- 
tion for  producing  it. 

The  Sunflower. — The  sunflower  (Helianthus 
annuus)  though  not  suitable  for  soiling  food  be- 
cause of  the  woody  character  of  the  stems  is  some- 
times grown  to  be  made  into  silage.  Like  the 
artichoke  it  is  so  well  known  that  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  describe  it.  The  stems  are  so  woody  that 
they  are  even  considered  unsuitable  for  being  made 
into  silage,  hence  the  heads  only  are  used  for  that 
purpose.  Because  of  this  and  for  the  further  reason 
that  the  work  of  harvesting  is  tedious,  as  now  prac- 
tised, it  is  questionable  if  sunflowers  will  ever  be 
generally  grown  as  a  soiling  crop.  The  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  gathering  the  seed  expeditiously  will 
deter  many  from  even  attempting  to  grow  this  plant 
for  any  purpose  notwithstanding  the  relatively  large 
yield  of  valuable  food  that  a  good  crop  produces. 
The  Russian  is  the  favorite  variety  grown  at  present 
in  the  United  States. 

The  sunflower  is  of  wide  distribution  and  may 
be  grown  in  a  great  variety  of  soils.  The  humus 
soils  of  the  prairie  are  well  suited  to  its  needs.  It 
has  much  power  to  grow  under  dry  conditions. 

Sacaline. — Sacaline  (Polygonwn  Sachalinense) 
is  a  plant  that  is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  island 
of  Saghalin  in  the  Pacific  and  not  far  from  the 
coast  of  Asia.  It  resembles  a  shrub  rather  than 
a  forage  plant  fn  the  form  of  its  growth.  By  the 
time  the  autumn  arrives  the  stems  that  have  not 
been  cut  during  the  season  are  but  little  less  woody. 


MISCELLANEOUS   PLANTS.  23! 

Fresh  shoots  are  sent  up  every  year  however,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  old  ones.  The  most  extravagant 
statements  have  been  made  by  certain  American 
seedsmen  regarding  the  great  value  of  this  plant  for 
forage.  They  represented  it  as  possessed  of  special 
adaptation  for  semi-arid  climates,  as  being  capable 
of  producing  several  cuttings  of  foliage  every  year, 
aggregating  enormous  yields,  and  as  being  able  thus 
to  produce  for  an  indefinite  period. 

Sacaline  has  been  tested  however  by  nearly  all 
the  experiment  stations  in  this  country  and  they  are 
almost  a  unit  in  the  verdict  that  it  has  no  important 
mission  to  fill  on  this  continent.  It  does  not  grow 
nearly  so  rapidly  as  was  represented,  and  the  stems 
become  so  woody  at  an  early  period  of  their  growth 
that  they  cannot  be  eaten  by  live  stock.  In  no  trial 
made  by  the  Author  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
station  did  the  animals  show  any  fondness  for  even 
the  leaves  of  this  plant.  It  is  propagated  chiefly  by 
root  cuttings.  It  is  recommended  to  plant  these 
in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  cultivating  the 
plants.  But  the  agricultural  value  of  sacaline  would 
seem  to  be  so  low  that  to  describe  further  the 
methods  of  growing  it  would  be  only  a  waste  of 
space. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SUCCESSION  IN  SOILING  CROPS. 

It  will  be  the  aim  in  this  chapter  to  designate 
the  various  crops  that  may  be  grown  as  soiling  food 
in  one  season  and  also  the  succession  in  which  they 
may  be  grown.  The  task  is  not  easy  because  of  the 
great  difference  in  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  in 
the  various  states  of  the  Union  and  in  the  provinces 
of  Canada.  The  only  way  in  which  such  a  designa- 
tion of  soiling  crops  can  be  made  that  will  be  even 
approximately  correct,  is  to  divide  these  states  and 
provinces  into  groups,  and  then  to  name  the  suc- 
cession in  the  soiling  crops  that  can  be  most  profit- 
ably grown  in  each.  This  division  or  grouping  of 
states  and  provinces,  will  of  necessity  have  to  be 
based  upon  similarity  in  the  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions peculiar  to  each.  When  those  states  and 
provinces  have  been  thus  grouped,  the  succession 
fixed  upon  can  only  serve  as  a  general  guide,  be- 
cause of  the  frequency  of  variations  in  soils  in 
states  that  lie  contiguous  and  also  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  state. 

In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  a  succession  of  soiling  crops  can  be  grown 
which  will  furnish  green  food  from  spring  until  the 
closing  in  of  winter.  The  season  for  growing 
these  crops  will  of  course  vary  with  the  differences 
in  latitude  and  also  in  altitude.  Along  the  northerly 

232 


SUCCESSION   IN   SOILING   CROPS.  233 

limit  of  the  cultivated  area  in  Canada  it  will  be  very 
short,  and  as  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United 
States  is  approached,  it  may  be  made  to  cover  nearly 
all  the  year.  It  will  be  the  aim  in  this  chapter  not 
only  to  point  out  the  succession  in  which  soiling 
crops  may  be  grown,  but  to  so  designate  the  order 
to  be  followed  in  the  same,  so  as  to  enable  the  grower 
to  feed  each  plant  in  its  proper  season,  and  conse- 
quently when  the  greatest  benefit  will  be  obtained 
from  feeding  it. 

It  should  be  understood  however  that  the  suc- 
cession of  soiling  crops  given  below  in  each  of  the 
divisions  named  is  intended  to  furnish  a  general 
rather  than  a  specific  guide  as  to  the  order  in  which 
they  should  be  grown.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  that  would  in  all  in- 
stances furnish  an  absolutely  sure  guide  to  the 
grower,  and  for  the  following  reasons: — 

I,  There  are  individual  plants  which  in 
favorable  locations  may  be  made  to  furnish 
green  food  during  all  the  season  of  growth. 
Such  are  alfalfa  and  rape.  In  these  areas 
other  plants  may  also  be  grown  at  the 
same  time.  In  such  instances  therefore,  the  ques- 
tion with  the  feeder  is  rather  a  choice  of  plants  than 
a  succession  of  the  same.  2,  Other  plants,  as  vetches, 
grow  vigorously  under  some  conditions,  spring  and 
autumn,  but  not  in  the  summer,  hence  they  are  in 
season  for  being  fed  twice  a  year.  3,  When  soiling 
foods  are  grown  as  catch  crops,  the  variations  in 
the  season  of  sowing  them  will  prove  a  disturbing 
factor  to  any  order  of  succession  that  may  be  fixed 
upon. 


234  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Grouping  States  and  Provinces. — The  order 
followed  in  grouping  the  various  states  of  the  Union 
and  the  provinces  of  Canada,  will  be  substantially 
the  same  as  that  given  in  the  book  on  "Forage 
Crops,"  previously  published  by  the  Author.  It  is 
as  follows: — 

Section  No.  I  includes  all  the  arable  country 
north  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  east  of 
Indiana  and  Wisconsin.  In  other  words  it  includes 
the  New  England  states,  the  states  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Michigan  and  Ontario,  Quebec  and  the 
Maritime  or  Atlantic  provinces  of  Canada.  Sec- 
tion No.  2  covers  the  country  west  of  the  states  of 
Michigan  and  Ohio,  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Missouri 
rivers  and  east  of  the  Dakotas  and  the  province  of 
Assinaboia  in  Canada,  that  is  to  say,  it  covers  the 
states  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  part  of  Missouri,  and  the  province  of  Mani- 
toba in  Canada.  Section  No.  3  includes  the  states 
south  of  the  Potomac,  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers,  and 
east  of  the  ninety-fifth  meridian  of  west  longitude. 
It  therefore  includes  the  states  of  Virginia,  Ken-^ 
tucky,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Arkansas  and  part  of  Missouri.  Section  No.  4 
embraces  the  states  west  of  the  ninety-fifth 
meridian  of  West  Longitude,  east  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  south  of  the  Dakotas.  In  other 
words  it  embraces  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas.  Section  No.  5  covers  the  country  north 
from  Nebraska,  west  of  Minnesota  and  Manitoba 
and  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  that  is  to  say,  it 


SUCCESSION    IN    SOILING    CROPS.  235 

covers  the  states  of  North  and  South  Dakota  and 
part  of  Montana  and  Wyoming,  also  the  Canadian 
provinces  of  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta. 
Section  No  6  includes  the  Rocky  mountain  valleyt 
north  from  Salt  Lake.  It  therefore  includes  thest 
valleys  in  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon. 
Washington  and  British  Columbia.  Section  No.  7. 
embraces  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  south  from 
the  latitude  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  In  other  words, 
it  embraces  these  valleys  in  the  states  of  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada  and  California. 
Section  No.  8  covers  the  narrow  strip  of  land  west 
of  the  Cascade  mountains  and  north  from  Cali- 
fornia, that  is  to  say,  it  covers  the  western  parts  of 
Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  i. — In  Section  No.  I 
the  climate  is  more  humid  than  in  areas  farther 
west,  and  the  soil  has  more  of  the  clay  content  in  it 
than  is  usually  found  in  prairie  soils.  This  section 
therefore  has  high  adaptation  for  plants  of  the 
clover  family  and  for  other  legumes,  as  peas  and 
vetches.  It  has  high  adaptation  also  for  cereals  grown 
alone  or  in  the  mixed  form*  These  crops  there- 
fore should  be  used  to  the  greatest  extent  possible 
in  producing  soiling  food.  Corn  may  be  grown 
for  soiling  uses  in  nearly  all  the  tillable  portions  of 
this  area,  and  the  same  is  true  of  rape,  millet,  fiel<^ 
roots  and  cabbage,  and  in  a  less  degree  of  sorghum 
The  entire  section  therefore  has  much  adaptatioi 
for  the  growth  of  soiling  foods. 

The  succession  in  which  soiling  crops  may  be 
grown  in  this  section  is  as  follows: — Winter  rye, 
alfalfa,  medium  red  clover,  mammoth,  and  alsik* 


236  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

clover,  peas  and  oats  or  peas  and  vetches,  corn,  sor- 
ghum, millet,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  Some 
of  these  crops  could  be  grown  so  as  to  be  in  season 
at  successive  intervals :  Alfalfa  and  rape  are  of  this 
class,  others  are  in  season  simultaneously,  as  for 
instance  peas  and  oats,  mammoth  and  alsike  clover. 
The  principal  soiling  crops  in  a  more  restricted 
succession  would  contain,  peas  and  oats,  or  vetches 
and  oats,  corn  or  sorghum,  and  rape  or  field  roots. 
Where  crimson  clover  can  be  grown  it  will  be  ready 
for  feeding  next  after  winter  rye. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  2. — The  medium 
red,  mammoth  and  alsike  varieties  of  clover  grow 
well  in  nearly  all  parts  of  states  included  in  Section 
No.  2,  but  not  in  the  province  of  Manitoba.  Crim- 
son clover  only  succeeds  in  the  more  southerly  areas 
of  the  same,  and  even  in  these  it  is  not  absolutely 
reliable.  Winter  rye,  mixed  grains,  millet,  rape, 
cabbage  and  field  roots  grow  vigorously,  but  not 
with  an  equal  vigor  in  all  the  area  included.  The 
same  is  true  of  corn  and  sorghum,  although  these 
grow  much  better  southward  than  northward. 
Peas  and  vetches  grow  fairly  well  but  better  north- 
ward than  southward.  The  cowpea  and  the  soy 
bean  in  some  of  their  varieties  grow  nicely  in  the 
southern  part  of  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Iowa,  but 
not  so  well  farther  north.  Alfalfa  grows  only  in 
sectional  areas.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  suc- 
cession in  the  northern  third  of  this  section  would  not 
be  the  same  as  in  the  southern  third.  In  the  former 
the  order  in  which  the  leading  soiling  crops  would  be 
ready  would  be  as  follows : — 

Winter  rye,  peas  and  oats  or  peas  and  vetches, 


SUCCESSION    IN    SOILING    CROPS.  237 

corn  or  sorghum,  millet,  rape,  field  roots  and  cab- 
bage. And  the  more  important  of  these  would  in- 
clude peas  and  oats  or  peas  and  vetches,  millet  and 
rape.  In  the  latter  the  order  would  be: — Winter 
rye,  medium  red  clover,  mammoth,  or  alsike  clover, 
peas  and  oats,  or  peas  and  vetches,  corn,  sorghum, 
millet,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  In  the  central 
third  of  the  section  the  most  favored  varieties  would 
include,  peas  and  oats,  corn  or  sorghum,  millet  and 
rape.  In  the  southern  third  of  the  same  these 
would  include  medium  red  clover,  the  soy  bean,  or 
cowpea  and  corn,  or  sorghum.  Where  crimson 
clover  and  alfalfa  could  be  grown,  these  would  be 
ready  for  being  fed  immediately  after  winter  rye. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  3. — Winter  rye,  win- 
ter oats,  crimson  clover,  the  common  winter  vetch, 
the  sand  vetch,  corn,  sorghum,  the  cowpea,  the  soy 
bean,  rape  and  cabbage  can  be  grown  with  more  or 
less  success  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  several  states 
comprised  in  this  section.  The  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums and  millet  in  some  of  its  forms  can  also  be 
grown  at  their  best  in  certain  sections,  but  not  so 
generally  as  nearly  all  of  the  various  plants  previ- 
ously named.  Alfalfa  grows  admirably  in  many 
localities,  but  does  not  succeed  in  others,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  field  roots,  and  in  many  sections 
Japan  clover,  the  velvet  bean  and  teosinte  grow  with 
much  vigor.  More  especially  is  this  true  of  areas 
that  lie  within  the  Gulf  states. 

For  the  northern  half  of  Section  No.  3  the 
succession  would  be: — Winter  rye,  winter  oats, 
crimson  clover,  the  common  winter  vetch,  the  sand 
vetch,  corn,  sorghum,  one  or  more  of  the  non- 


238  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

saccharine  sorghums,  the  cowpea,  the  soy  bean, 
millet,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  A  limited 
succession  would  include  crimson  clover,  the  soy 
bean  or  the  cowpea  and  corn  or  sorghum  in  one 
or  more  of  its  varieties.  The  succession  for  the 
southern  half  of  the  section  would  be  to  a  certain 
extent  the  same  as  for  the  northern  half,  but  in 
the  former  more  prominence  relatively  should  be 
given  to  the  sorghums  than  to  corn,  and  in  some 
sections  the  velvet  bean  and  possibly  teosinte  and 
Japan  clover  should  be  given  a  place  in  the  succes- 
sion. Where  alfalfa  can  be  grown  with  en*;^° 
success,  as  for  instance  on  the  bottom  lands  of 
Louisiana,  this  plant  alone  could  be  made  to  provide 
soiling  food  for  live  stock  during  much  of  the  year. 
Succession  in  Section  No.  4. — In  Section  No.  4 
the  variety  of  plants  that  can  be  grown  as  soiling 
food  is  not  quite  so  large.  In  much  of  this  area  the 
clovers,  except  alfalfa,  could  scarcely  be  taken  into 
account.  The  millets,  at  least  in  the  common 
varieties,  would  not  prove  a  marked  success,  because 
of  the  dry  conditions.  The  common  winter  vetch 
and  the  sand  vetch  would  not  render  much  ser- 
vice, chiefly  because  of  the  want  of  moisture.  Much 
prominence  ought  to  be  given  to  alfalfa,  especially 
in  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  to  certain  of  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  as  kaffir  corn  and  milo  maize, 
in  all  the  area,  because  of  the  marked  adaptation  for 
these  plants.  The  soy  bean  has  on  the  whole  higher 
adaptation  to  these  states  than  the  cowpea.  The 
moisture  is  also  too  little  to  admit  of  growing 
rape  at  its  best  and  the  summer  temperatures  are 
also  too  high. 


SUCCESSION   IN    SOILING   CROPS  239 

The  succession  of  soiling  foods  would  be  some- 
what as  follows: — Winter  rye,  alfalfa,  the  sand 
vetch,  the  cowpea,  corn  or  sorghum,  one  or  more 
of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  pearl  millet  and 
teosinte.  A  more  limited  succession  would  include, 
alfalfa,  corn  or  sorghum,  the  soy  bean  and  one  or 
more  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums.  These  crops, 
except  corn  and  the  soy  bean,  may  be  made  to 
furnish  more  than  one  cutting  a  year. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  5. — The  succession 
of  soiling  plants  in  Section  No.  5  is  still  more 
restricted  than  in  Section  No.  4.  The  several 
species  of  clover  are  virtually  excluded  except  in 
some  of  the  river  bottoms  toward  the  mountains. 
In  these  alfalfa  may  be  grown.  The  non-saccharine 
sorghums,  the  soy  bean  and  the  winter  vetch  must 
also  be  excluded.  The  cereal  grains  of  the  small 
varieties,  corn,  millet,  rape,  field  roots  and  cab- 
bage are  the  only  soiling  foods  which  can  be 
grown  in  nearly  all  the  area  covered  by  this 
section. 

The  succession  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  section 
would  be: — Winter  rye,  mixed  grains  as  peas  and 
oats,  millet,  corn,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  The 
more  restricted  succession  would  include: — Mixed 
grains,  corn,  millet  and  rape.  In  the  western  half 
of  the  area,  the  principal  crops  would  be  mixed 
grains  and  corn,  and  in  the  river  bottoms  alfalfa 
could  be  added.  Quick  maturing  varieties  of  corn 
would  have  to  be  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  this 
section.  Sorghum  could  also  be  grown  in  the  south- 
ern portions.  Millet  grows  admirably  along  the 
eastern  border.  But  winter  rye  could  not  always 


24O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

be  depended  on  westward  in  the  section,  because  of 
the  want  of  moisture  in  the  autumn. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  6. — In  the  mountain 
valleys  in  this  section,  alfalfa,  medium  red  clover, 
peas  and  vetches  will  probably  furnish  the  chief 
soiling  foods  through  all  time.  In  the  valleys 
lying  southward  these  crops  will  be  grown  under 
irrigation.  On  the  bench  lands  adjacent  to  the 
mountains,  they  will  be  supplied  with  moisture 
from  seepage  waters  percolating  downward  be- 
cause of  the  melting  of  the  snows  upon  the 
mountains.  In  the  valleys  lying  northward  these 
crops  will  in  many  instances  be  grown  without 
irrigation. 

The  possible  succession  of  soiling  crops  would 
include  winter  rye,  the  winter  vetch,  alfalfa,  medium 
red  clover,  alsike  clover,  mixed  grains  as  peas  and 
©ats,  the  sand  vetch,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage. 
The  more  restricted  succession  would  include  alfalfa, 
medium  red  clover  and  peas  and  oats,  or  peas 
and  vetches.  In  the  valleys  lying  southward,  much 
prominence  should  be  given  to  the  winter  vetch,  and 
some  use  could  also  be  made  of  corn.  Alfalfa  alone 
could  be  made  to  supply  soiling  food  during  nearly 
all  the  growing  season.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the 
valleys  north  of  the  Canadian  boundary.  In  the 
semi-range  lands  of  Washington  and  Oregon  where 
the  conditions  are  dry,  and  where  irrigating  waters 
cannot  be  supplied,  and  where  also  the  nights  are 
cool,  the  succession  would  have  to  be  restricted  to 
such  crops  as  mixed  grains  of  which  wheat  would  be 
one  of  the  chief,  Austrian  brome  grass,  (Bromus 
inermis)  and  rape. 


THE    HISTORY    OF    SILOING. 

'Succession  in  Section  No.  7. — Much  of  the 
soiling  food  grown  in  this  section  would  have  to 
be  produced  through  irrigation.  Alfalfa  alone  could 
be  made  to  .meet  the  requirements,  so  marked  is  its 
adaptation  to  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
But  to  create  variety  such  foods  as  the  soy  bean  and 
certain  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  could  be 
introduced. 

The  possible  succession  in  soiling  crops  would 
include,  winter  rye,  alfalfa,  mixed  grains,  as  for 
instance  oats  and  the  sand  vetch,  corn,  sorghum,  the 
non-saccharine  sorghums,  the  soy  bean,  pearl  millet, 
teosinte,  rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  The  more 
valuable  of  these  crops  would  be  alfalfa  and  the 
sorghums.  These  could  be  grown  side  by  side  and 
could  at  certain  times  be  fed  simultaneously. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  8. — In  no  part  of 
the  continent  can  soiling  foods,  leguminous  in 
character,  be  produced  in  so  great  variety  as  in  this 
section.  All  the  leading  varieties  of  clover  grow 
admirably,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  leading  varie- 
ties of  the  vetch  and  pea.  The  sand  vetch  will  doubt- 
less grow  well,  but  because  of  the  ease  with  which 
the  common  vetch  can  be  produced  it  is  not  necessary 
to  grow  it  unless  in  areas  sandy  in  character.  Rape, 
field  roots  and  cabbage  grow  in  great  perfection. 
But  the  summer  temperatures  are  low  for  corn, 
sorghum,  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  and  millet. 
Alfalfa  and  crimson  clover  have  not  been  much  tried 
as  yet,  but  will  doubtless  succeed. 

The  possible  succession  of  these  crops  therefore 
will  include  winter  rye,  crimson  clover,  alfalfa, 
medium  red,  alsike,  mammoth  and  white  clover, 
16 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

perennial  rye  grass,  peas  and  oats,  peas  and  vetches, 
rape,  field  roots  and  cabbage.  Medium  red  clover 
alone  could  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food  during 
much  of  the  season,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
vetch  if  both  the  winter  and  the  spring  varieties  are 
sown,  and  it  is  also  true  of  rape.  The  restricted 
succession  would  include  medium  red  clover,  vetches 
and  oats,  peas  and  oats,  and  rape. 


r 


PART  TWO 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  SILOING. 

Any  discussion  of  soiling  crops  that  did  not  also 
consider  silos  and  silage  would  be  incomplete, 
since  it  is  probably  true  that  more  green  food  is 
fed  in  the  United  States  in  the  form  of  silage  than 
in  any  other  form.  It  would  not  be  possible  with 
accuracy  to  state  the  number  of  silos  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time  but  it  is  probably  not  less 
than  one  hundred  thousand,  and  it  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing. There  is  probably  no  state  in  the  Union 
without  its  quota  of  silos.  This  fact  is  very  signifi- 
cant when  it  is  called  to  mind  that  over  ground  silos 
had  not  been  built  in  this  country  prior  to  1876. 

Plan  of  the  Discussion. — It  will  be  the  aim  of 
the  Author  to  discuss  this  question  from  an  un- 
biased standpoint.  In  reading  the  various  excellent 
publications  that  have  appeared  on  the  subject  in  the 
United  States  the  thought  is  forced  on  the  mind  by 
all  or  nearly  all  of  them  that  they  are  in  a  sense  pleas 
for  the  silo.  The  men  who  have  written  them  have 
been  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  silo,  and  in  their 
enthusiasm  they  would  seem  to  have  overlooked  or 
kept  in  abeyance  the  fact,  that  silos  are  not  equally 
needed,  or  equally  helpful  in  the  various  states  of  the 
Union  or  even  in  all  sections  of  each  state.  This 
enthusiasm  is  not  only  pardonable  but  it  has  unques- 
tionably been  positively  helpful  in  hastening  the 

245 


246  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

introduction  and  distribution  of  silos.  And  these  in 
turn  have  proved  greatly  helpful  to  farmers  and 
more  especially  to  dairymen. 

The  present  discussion  however  will  not  be 
a  plea  for  the  silo.  It  will  look  into  both  sides  of% 
the  question  for  it  is  true  that  silos  are  not  equally 
necessary,  that  they  are  not  equally  helpful,  that 
some  conditions  of  farming  do  not  call  for  their 
construction  and  that  only  certain  kinds  of 
crops  can  be  preserved  in  them  with  uniform 
success.  The  aim  will  be  therefore  to  discuss  the 
question  as  it  is,  and  not  as  the  Author  might  de- 
sire it  to  be. 

Definition  of  Terms. — A  silo  is  a  structure 
designed  for  the  preservation  of  food  in  the  green 
and  succulent  form.  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  word  siros  a  pit  for  holding  grain.  In  some 
instances  it  is  simply  a  pit  or  hole  dug  in  the  ground 
where  the  drainage,  natural  or  artificial,  is  sufficient 
to  prevent  an  undue  accumulation  of  moisture. 
In  others  it  is  a  structure  of  wood,  stone  or  some 
other  building  material  or  a  combination  of  these 
standing  out  by  itself  or  within  a  barn  or  stable  of 
which  it  may  be  said  to  form  a  part.  More  com- 
monly it  is  now  built  entirely  above  ground  although 
sometimes  it  goes  down  for  some  distance  into  the 
earth.  The  modern  silo  is  usually  a  structure  rather 
than  a  pit,  as  the  original  idea  of  preserving  food 
in  pits  in  the  ground  is  but  little  practiced  now,  at 
least  in  this  country. 

Ensilage  or  Silage,  as  it  is  now  more  commonly 
called,  is  green  and  succulent  food  preserved  in  a 
silo  in  a  green  and  succulent  condition.  It  is 


THE    HISTORY    OF    SILOING.  247 

preserved  in  the  uncut  form  or  after  it  has  been  run 
through  a  cutting  box  and  is  packed  more  or  less 
tightly  according  to  conditions  such  as  those  that 
relate  to  the  variety  of  the  food,  its  succulence,  and 
the  depth  of  the  silo.  Soon  after  the  green  food  has 
been  placed  in  the  silo  fermentation  begins  and  the 
temperature  rises.  The  air  within  the  mass  is  thus 
expelled  and  \vhen  it  is,  chemical  change  virtually 
ceases.  The  product  thus  preserved  may  be  kept  in- 
definitely, providing  air  is  not  allowed  to  penetrate 
it.  Because  of  this  it  is  important  that  the  sides  and 
floor  of  the  structure  shall  be  practically  air-tight. 
The  air  is  usually  prevented  from  entering  from 
above  to  any  considerable  depth  by  covering  the 
silage  with  some  less  valuable  vegetable  substance  as 
more  fully  described  in  Chapter  V. 

The  principle  in  making  silage  is  the  same 
virtually  as  in  canning  fruits  or  in  making  sauer- 
kraut. When  the  temperature  in  the  mass  rises  un- 
til it  attains  122  degrees  Fahrenheit  the  action  of  the 
fermerts  is  arrested.  As  soon  as  the  available 
oxygen  is  exhausted  chemical  change  ceases  and 
sweet  silage  is  the  result.  If  however  from  any 
cause,  as  for  instance  an  excess  of  moisture  in  the 
plants,  the  temperature  does  not  reach  122  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  the  acid  ferments  will  not  be  killed  and 
the  result  will  be  sour  silage.  Sour  silage  is  not  only 
less  valuable  than  sweet  silage,  but  there  is  usually 
greater  waste  in  making  it. 

The  terms  sweet  and  sour  as  applied  to  silage 
are  only  relative  terms.  There  is  no  line  of  dis- 
tinction between  them  so  sharply  drawn  that  it  may 
be  said  where  the  one  begins  and  the  other  ends. 


248  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

There  is  no  silage  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  it  is 
entirely  free  from  acidity. 

Formerly  the  term  ensilage  was  frequently  used 
to  indicate  the  process  of  storing  food  green  and 
succulent  in  the  silo.  As  distinguished  from  silage 
the  latter  was  the  food  and  the  former  the  process 
of  making  it,  but  the  use  of  the  term  ensilage  is 
becoming  obsolete.  Ensilage  and  silage  are  now 
regarded  as  synonymons. 

Siloing  or  Ensiling  food  is  the  process  of  mak- 
ing it  into  silage,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  the  process  of 
putting  it  into  the  silo  and  of  curing  it  in  the  same. 
While  it  cannot  be  said  that  these  terms  have  been 
extensively  used  by  speakers  and  writers  they  would 
seem  to  express  very  concisely  the  idea  involved. 
Why  then  should  any  objection  be  made  to  using 
them? 

A  Siloist  is  a  person  who  makes  and  feeds  sil- 
age. The  term  has  not  been  used  heretofore  to  any 
considerable  extent.  Possibly  it  may  never  become 
popular  since  the  making  and  feeding  of  silage  is 
more  commonly  an  adjunct  of  farming,  rather  than 
the  principal  work  of  the  farmer,  and  those  who 
make  silage  are  also  usually  farmers.  The  term 
is  certainly  wanted  however  or  some  equivalent  to  it 
for  conciseness  of  statement  when  designating  the 
relation  of  those  engaged  in  making  silage  to  the 
work  in  hand,  why  then  should  it  not  be  adopted? 

Antiquity  of  Siloing. — It  is  not  known  when 
the  method  of  preserving  green  food  by  putting  it  in 
the  silo  originated.  It  cannot  therefore  be  known 
who  was  its  originator.  History  is  likely  to  be  for- 
ever silent  on  this  point.  Ancient  writers  speak  of 


THE    HISTORY    OF   SILOING.  249 

the  practice  of  burying  grain  in  underground  pits 
to  save  it  for  future  use,  or  from  enemies.  It  is 
possible  therefore  that  the  idea  of  the  possibility  of 
curing  food  on  the  principle  now  practiced  in  making 
silage  was  the  outcome  of  the  accident  of  hiding  it 
from  enemies  and  then  finding  it  in  good  condition 
for  use  after  it  had  been  buried  for  a  period  more 
or  less  prolonged. 

There  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that  semi- 
barbaric  races  in  various  countries  have  not  only 
known  of  this  method  of  preserving  food  but  to  some 
extent  they  have  practiced  it.  Notably  is  this  true 
of  certain  of  the  peoples  of  northern  Europe,  as  for 
instance,  those  located  in  the  regions  around  the 
Baltic  sea,  where  rainy  harvests  render  it  difficult  to 
preserve  fodder  for  animals  in  the  dried  form. 
Their  necessities  therefore  caused  them  to  give  some 
attention  to  a  question  that  under  other  conditions 
would  have  attracted  no  attention  whatever. 

Utilisation  of  the  Idea. — For  about  a  century 
the  preservation  of  green  food  by  the  same  method 
substantially  as  that  followed  in  making  sauerkraut 
has  prevailed  to  some  extent  in  various  parts  of 
Germany.  But  it  was  not  until  the  approach  of  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  that  attempts  were 
made  to  preserve  food  thus  on  a  large  scale.  The 
introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar  beets  into 
central  Europe  is  doubtless  responsible,  in  part  at 
least,  for  the  greatly  increased  attention  that  then 
began  to  be  given  to  preserving  food  by  burying  it  in 
pits.  It  was  found  a  necessity  in  utilizing  sugar 
beet  tops  and  sugar  beet  pulp  to  the  best  advantage. 
But  even  then  the  process  spread  slowly  owing 


25O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

doubtless  to  the  great  labor  involved  in  curing  green 
food  by  the  method  then  practiced. 

The  Earlier  Silos. — The  earlier  silos  used  by 
the  people  of  France,  Germany  and  some  other 
countries  in  Europe  were  simply  pits  or  trenches 
dug  in  the  ground.  The  material  was  spread  in 
these  in  uniform  layers  and  was  trodden  or  other- 
wise compressed  so  as  to  lie  compactly.  The  green 
food  was  put  into  those  pits  by  successive  stages  as 
for  instance  day  by  day  or  at  intervals  more  pro- 
longed. The  amount  put  in  at  one  time  was  limited 
to  not  much  more  probably  than  one  foot  in  depth. 
The  object  sought  by  filling  thus  gradually  was  to 
secure  a  more  perfect  settling  of  the  mass  through 
the  fermentation  engendered. 

When  the  pit  was  full  it  was  common  to  cover 
the  green  food  with  a  layer  of  straw  or  some  other 
dry  porous  substance.  Boards  were  then  laid  over 
the  straw  and  a  pressure  applied  which  was  not  less 
than  one  hundred  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  The 
pressure  wras  commonly  secured  through  weighting 
with  some  heavy  substance,  as  by  placing  stones  on 
the  boards  or  by  covering  them  with  earth.  The 
earth  thus  used  was  distributed  over  the  pit  to  the 
depth  of  one  to  two  feet. 

In  some  instances  the  sides  and  floor  of  the 
pits  were  puddled  with  clay,  and  sometimes  the  sides 
were  lined  with  boards.  During  the  later  years  of 
siloing  on  this  plan  the  trenches  were  occasionally 
cemented  but  this  was  not  until  a  considerable  period 
had  elapsed  subsequently  to  the  more  general  intro- 
duction of  this  method  of  siloing.  Such  were  the 
first  silos  made  in  the  United  States.  They  were 


THE    HISTORY    OF    SILOING.  25! 

patterned  more  particularly  after  the  silos  built  by 
Goffart  the  great  French  siloist  whose  work  is  again 
referred  to.  His  silos  were  39.4  ft  long,  16.4  ft 
broad  and  16.4  ft  deep  and  they  were  much  circled  at 
the  ends.  But  the  laboriousness  of  the  process  made 
it  irksome  to  those  who  adopted  it,  and,  because  of 
this,  American  ingenuity  set  to  work  to  emancipate 
the  siloist  from  the  bondage  of  so  much  hard  labor 
when  curing  green  food.  The  result  has  been  that 
the  adaptation  of  the  silo  to  the  needs  of  the  general 
farmer  has  been  almost  entirely  the  outcome  of 
American  skill. 

The  Modern  Silo. — When  silos  first  began  to 
be  built  on  the  modern  plan,  that  is  to  say  on  the 
plan  of  a  structure  rather  than  on  that  of  an  under- 
ground pit  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  make  the  walls 
of  stone  and  to  excavate  so  that  the  silo  would  be, 
in  part  at  least,  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  And 
even  as  late  as  1885,  the  practice  of  covering  with 
boards  and  then  weighting  with  earth  or  stones  was 
universal.  The  idea  of  making  these  structures 
narrow  and  deep  so  that  pressure  would  be  secured 
from  the  silage  itself  had  not  yet  dawned  on  the 
minds  of  experimenters.  The  cost  of  the  structures 
then  used  was  so  great  and  the  mode  of  filling  the 
silo  and  feeding  the  silage  so  cumbrous  that  it  was 
feared  by  many  that  the  silo  would  be  helpful  only 
to  those  possessed  of  considerable  means,  rather  than 
to  the  great  mass  of  farmers. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  more  of  the 
successes  and  failures  in  building  silos  and  making 
silage  during  that  peculiarly  tentative  period  in 
American  siloing  between  1880  and  1890.  To  get 


252  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

this  information  would  mean  a  search  through  the 
file  copies  of  the  entire  American  agricultural  press. 
Much  of  it  has  doubtless  never  been  published,  since 
men  are  prone  to  cover  up  the  story  of  failure  rather 
than  to  hang  it  up  as  a  beacon  for  the  guidance 
of  others.  No  question  however  was  more  discussed 
by  contributors  to  the  agricultural  press  during  that 
revolution  period  in  American  siloing,  and  no  ques- 
tion was  more  controverted.  Even  the  most  san- 
guine advocates  of  the  silo  during  the  decade  re- 
ferred to  could  scarcely  have  hoped  so  soon  to  witness 
the  completeness  of  the  triumphs  won  by  the  modern 
silo.  None  would  then  have  dared  to  predict  that 
the  last  days  of  the  century  would  look  out  over  not 
fewer  than  one  hundred  thousand  successful  silos  in 
the  United  States. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  first  silo  built  in  America 
on  the  modern  plan  was  made  in  1876  and  that  it  was 
erected  by  F.  Morris  of  Maryland.  The  first  wooden 
silo  built  west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains  was  that 
erected  by  John  Gould  of  Aurora  Station,  O.,  in 
1884.  The  province  of  Ontario  took  its  full  share 
in  helping  forward  the  evolution  of  the  American 
silo.  V.  E.  Fuller,  then  of  Hamilton,  erected  the 
first  silo  built  in  that  province  on  his  Oaklands  Jersey 
farm  in  1881.  It  was  located  in  the  bay  of  the  barn 
and  in  making  it  the  ground  was  excavated  far  down 
through  gravel  hardpan.  The  walls  and  floor  were 
lined  with  bricks  and  the  bricks  were  overlaid  with 
concrete.  Though  Canada  is  not  essentially  a  corn 
producing  country  like  unto  the  states  in  the  corn 
belt,  many  silos  have  been  successfully  built  and  op- 
erated in  Ontario.  The  marked  attention  given  to 


THE    HISTORY'  OF    SILOING.  253 

the  dairy  industry  in  that  province  is  largely  re- 
sponsible for  such  a  result. 

The  chief  centers  for  silos  in  the  United  States 
are,  of  course,  the  dairy  centers,  as  for  instance,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  But 
many  silos  are  now  being  built  in  states  further  west, 
as  for  instance,  Minnesota  and  Iowa.  In  the  New 
England  states  the  number  of  silos  is  also  relatively 
large. 

American  Progress  in  Siloing. — The  marvel- 
ous progress  in  siloing  in  the  United  States  during 
recent  years  is  not  accidental.  The  time  was  ripe 
for  the  introduction  of  the  silo.  A  wave  of  dairy 
advance  was  beginning  to  sweep  over  the  continent 
when  discussion  began  as  to  the  merits  of  the  silo, 
and  dairymen  must  through  all  time  be  deeply  inter- 
ested in  securing  succulent  food  for  their  cattle. 
The  attention  of  a  large  and  intelligent  section  of 
the  community  was  therefore  at  once  secured  as 
soon  as  the  discussion  began  on  the  practicability  of 
providing  green  food  summer  and  winter  for  dairy 
stock. 

The  great  extent  to  which  Indian  corn  is  grown 
in  this  country  proved  favorable  to  success  in  the 
earlier  experiments  in  making  silage.  It  is  now 
generally  conceded  that  Indian  corn  is  par  excellence 
the  silo  plant.  The  great  success  achieved  by 
American  siloists  is  in  a  measure  due  to  this  fact,  but 
of  course  it  does  not  account  for  the  great  progress 
made  in  improving  the  silo  or  in  preserving  silage. 

Mistakes  Made  by  Early  Siloists. — As  was  to  be 
expected  many  mistakes  were  made  by  the  earlier 
siloists.  The  silos  were  unnecessarily  costly  as 


254  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

already  intimated.  They  were  sunk  too  low  in  the 
ground.  So  little  attention  was  given  to  the  preser- 
vation of  the  foundation  of  wood  silos  when  they 
were  first  introduced  and  to  providing  ventilation 
for  the  walls  that  decay  was  unduly  rapid.  The  silos 
were  too  shallow,  hence  the  pressure  of  the  silage 
was  not  enough  to  secure  the  best  results.  The  sur- 
face dimensions  were  often  so  large  as  to  make 
it  difficult  to  properly  preserve  the  exposed  portion 
of  the  silage  while  it  was  being  fed.  Corn  and  other 
•green  food  was  oftentimes  put  into  the  silo  in  a  form 
too  green,  hence  it  became  unduly  sour.  And  in 
other  instances  the  food  was  put  in  too  dry  which 
induced  mold.  These  mistakes  may  now  be  gen- 
erally avoided  by  the  siloist  who  intelligently  makes 
use  of  the  information  now  available.  But  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  many  things  are  yet  to  be 
learned  about  siloing  by  the  average  siloist  before 
he  will  be  able  to  make  first-class  silage  with  uniform 
and  unvarying  success. 

Literature  on  the  Silo. — Since  the  introduction 
of  the  silo  into  the  United  States  no  question  per- 
taining to  agriculture  has  been  more  generally  dis- 
cussed. At  the  outset  these  discussions  emanated 
chiefly  from  the  men  who  had  experimented  with 
silos  and  they  appeared  in  pamphlet  or  book  form 
and  also  in  the  agricultural  press  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Later,  experiments  were  conducted 
and  somewhat  numerously  at  a  considerable  number 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations.  The  results 
from  these  experiments  were  given  to  the  public  in 
bulletin  form.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  much  of 
the  literature  produced  on  the  subject  is  fragmentary 


THE    HISTORY    OF    SILOING.  255 

and  of  necessity  somewhat  crude  in  its  character. 
More  recently  however  a  few  individuals  have  pub- 
lished books  on  the  subject  which  cover  the  same 
with  more  or  less  completeness.  But  almost  without 
exception  it  would  be  correct  to  say  these  are  pleas 
for  the  silo  rather  than  unbiased  discussions  of  the 
broad  question  of  silage  and  the  silo. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  Author  nearly  all  of 
those  who  have  written  thus  upon  the  subject  in  the 
United  States  have  overestimated  the  feeding  value 
of  corn  and  its  po\ver  to  maintain  animals  in  good 
health  when  fed  continuously  as  the  principal  food 
ration.  They  have  also  apparently  placed  too  little 
value  on  soiling  crops,  more  especially  the  legumes. 
They  have  underestimated  the  worth  of  pastures 
by  viewing  them  simply  as  producers  of  so  much 
food  without  having  sufficiently  considered  the 
beneficent  influence  which  they  exert  mechanically 
and  otherwise  upon  soils.  And  they  have  not 
sufficiently  emphasized  the  losses  from  making  poor 
and  spoiled  silage.  However,  it  is  but  fitting  to  say 
that  the  enthusiasm  which  has  shut  its  eyes  to  these 
and  kindred  truths  relating  to  the  siloing  of  crops 
*has  been  most  helpful  in  fastening  public  attention 
on  a  method  of  preserving  fodder  which  is  certainly 
capable  of  bringing  great  benefit  to  our  agriculture. 

It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  first  book 
ever  written  on  the  silo  is  from  the  pen  of  M.  Auguste 
Goffart,  an  agriculturist  of  Sologne,  near  Orleans,  in 
France.  The  manual  of  the  Culture  and  Siloing  of 
Maize  is  the  title  of  the  book  in  English.  It  ap- 
peared in  1877  and  it  contains  the  results  of 
many  years  of  careful  experiment  in  growing  and 


256  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

preserving  green  crops.  The  appearance  of  this  work 
did  much  to  arrest  the  attention  of  agriculturists  not 
only  in  France  but  also  in  other  countries.  Although 
sundry  experiments  in  preserving  green  crops  in 
Germany  and  also  in  some  other  countries  had  been 
conducted  previously  to  the  publication  of  Goffart's 
book,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  appearance 
served  in  no  slight  degree  to  draw  public  attention 
to  the  advantages  resulting  to  the  agriculturist  from 
preserving  crops  thus  in  the  green  form.  Because 
of  M.  Auguste  Goffart's  early,  persistent  and  abun- 
dant labors  in  this  work  he  has  been  frequently 
designated  "The  father  of  modern  silage."  His 
book  was  translated  into  English  in  1879,  by  J.  W. 
Brown  of  New  York  City. 

In  1875  "The  French  Mode  of  Curing  Forage" 
was  published  in  the  annual  report  of  the  United 
States  department  of  agriculture.  This  it  is  thought 
was  the  first  discussion  of  the  subject  in  the  United 
States  which  treated  it  in  a  comprehensive  and  sys- 
tematic manner,  although  previously  various  articles 
had  appeared  in  the  agricultural  press.  These  re- 
lated chiefly  to  European  experience.  Dr.  J.  M. 
Bailey  published  a  work  on  the  subject  in  1880.  Dr. ' 
Manly  Miles  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  college 
wrote  a  work  en  silos,  silage  and  ensilage  which 
appeared  in  1889.  Pro^  A-  J-  Cook  then  of  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  college  published  in  1889 
"The  Silo  and  Silage"  and  in  1890  a  revised  edition 
of  the  same.  This  book  treats  of  silos  as  then  con- 
structed and  of  silage,  as  then  made,  in  a  very  practi- 
cal way.  The  "Book  on  Silage"  by  Prof.  F.  W. 
Woll,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  college,  was 


THE    HISTORY    OF    SILOING.  257 

published  in  1899.  It  is  by  far  the  most  compre- 
hensive discussion  of  the  question  that  has  yet 
appeared  from  the  pen  of  any  American  author. 
Other  publications  have  also  appeared  in  Europe  on 
the  question,  but  they  are  not  noticed  here  since  the 
methods  which  they  recommend  are  on  the  whole 
not  nearly  so  well  adapted  to  American  conditions  as 
those  submitted  by  American  authors. 
17 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BENEFITS  FROM  SILOING  CROPS. 

The  benefits  from  siloing  crops  are  many. 
Prominent  among  them  are  the  following: — i,  The 
crops  that  are  thus  stored  may  be  harvested  in  what 
may  be  termed  a  wholesale  way.  2,  They  may  be 
cured,  without  loss,  in  showery  weather.  3,  Green 
food  may  thus  be  furnished  all  the  year  from  this 
one  source.  4,  The  food  is  rendered  more  palatable 
and  in  a  sense  more  healthful  when  fed  as  a  part  of 
a  ration.  5,  The  silo  is  economical  of  space.  6,  It 
is  also  economical  of  labor  when  the  food  is  being 
fed  to  the  stock.  These  benefits  are  however  to 
some  extent  offset  by  certain  disadvantages.  These 
will  be  noticed  as  well  as  the  benefits,  and  some  prac- 
tical deductions  drawn  from  the  discussion. 

Wholesale  Harvesting  of  Crops. — When  crops 
are  cured  in  the  silo  the  labor  of  harvesting  is  of 
necessity  done  in  a  wholesale  way,  that,  is  to  say,  it  is 
usually  done  within  a  short  period,  with  but  little 
interruption  in  the  work,  and  with  a  minimum  of 
waste  of  time  on  the  part  of  men  and  teams.  The 
necessity  for  first  curing  the  food  and  then  handling 
it  again  in  storing  is  thus  obviated.  But  these  bene- 
fits are  in  a  measure  offset  by  the  difficulty  in  se- 
curing the  necessary  machinery  and  men  to  do  the 
work  in  season.  Especially  is  this  true  with  the 

258 


THE    BENEFITS    FROM    SILOING    CROPS.         259 

occupants  of  small  farms,  and  the  difficulty  increases 
with  the  multiplication  of  silos  in  any  community. 
It  can  be  obviated  in  part,  but  not  wholly,  by  doing 
the  work  on  some  system  of  co-operation  between 
farmers  who  are  near  neighbors. 

Cured  in  Showery  Weather. — Such  crops  as  are 
suitable  for  being  made  into  silage  may  be  stored 
in  the  silo  under  conditions  of  weather  quite  adverse 
to  the  dry  curing  of  the  same  in  the  ordinary  way. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  such  crops  as  are  easily 
injured  by  rain,  as  clover  for  instance,  and  the  cow- 
pea.  The  work  of  storing  may  go  on  in  some  in- 
stances without  any  interruption  other  than  what  is 
caused  by  the  work  hands  seeking  shelter  from  the 
falling  rain.  But  in  other  instances  more  or  less  of 
delay  would  be  necessary,  as  it  is  possible  to  store 
some  crops  in  the  silo  with  too  much  of  moisture  in 
them.  Some  kinds  of  crops  can  thus  be  saved  with 
but  little  harm  that  would  otherwise  be  ruined  by 
excessive  wet,  and  they  may  also  be  handled  at  such 
times  with  but  little  increase  in  the  labor  involved 
in  handling  them. 

Green  Food  All  the  Year. — The  silo  may  be 
made  to  furnish  green  food  all  the  year,  and  under 
some  conditions  more  easily  than  it  can  be  furnished 
from  any  other  source.  There  are  localities  in  which 
soiling  crops  other  than  corn  or  sorghum  cannot  be 
readily  grown  with  marked  success,  and  there  may 
be  instances  in  which  it  would  not  be  convenient  to 
grow  them  or  to  command  the  time  required  to  cut 
and  feed  them  when  grown.  Under  such  conditions 
a  supply  of  silage  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the 
stock  during  winter  is  helpful,  more  especially  to 


260  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

men,  whose  cows  would  otherwise  be  wholly  de- 
pendent on  pastures  which  may  fail  with  the  advent 
of  dry  weather. 

There  is  no  method  of  providing  green  food 
even  for  summer  feeding  that  is  so  economical  of 
labor.  Silage  can  be  taken  from  the  silo  and  fed  to 
cows  in  much  less  time  than  soiling  food  could  be 
provided  from  any  other  source.  And  when  meal 
is  given  at  the  same  time,  it  may  be  fed  more  profit- 
ably when  mixed  with  the  silage  than  when  fed 
along  with  other  soiling  food,  without  first  running 
the  same  through  a  fodder  cutter.  To  prepare  green 
food  thus  by  cutting  it  up  would  be  impracticable 
when  harvested  day  by  day,  unless  when  a  very 
large  quantity  was  used  daily,  and  where  there  is  an 
ample  supply  of  help. 

Live  stock  will  also  eat  such  food  with  avidity. 
Instances  are  on  record  where  cows  have  shown  a 
preference  for  corn  silage  over  grass,  and  there  is  no 
period  of  the  year,  not  even  when  grass  is  at  its 
best,  that  they  will  not  eat  with  evident  relish  more 
or  less  of  corn  silage  when  well  preserved.  The 
silo  therefore  may  be  made  to  furnish  soiling  food 
every  day  in  the  year,  since  it  will  answer  quite  well 
to  begin  feeding  from  a  silo  the  day  after  the  filling 
of  the  same  has  been  completed,  and  even  while  the 
filling  process  is  under  way. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  because  live  stock 
may  thus  be  provided  with  green  food  that  it  will 
not  be  eminently  proper  to  provide  and  feed  other 
green  food.  Corn  is  not  in  itself  a  balanced  ration, 
nor  is  corn  silage  and  grass,  and  even  though  these 
did  furnish  a  balanced  food,  a  variety  is  usually 


THE    BENEFITS    FROM    SILOING    CROPS.        26 1 

preferable  to  one  or  two  kinds,  and  a  change  of  food 
to  sameness  in  the  diet. 

If  air  is  excluded  from  silage  it  will  probably 
keep  for  an  indefinite  period.  Nevertheless  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  for  trying  to  pre- 
serve silage  for  more  than  one  year  under  ordinary 
conditions.  The  additional  space  required  for  stor- 
ing silage  intended  for  feeding  more  than  one  year 
would  be  unnecessarily  costly,  nor  would  any  com- 
mensurate benefits  accrue  from  so  doing.  There 
would  seem  to  be  no  more  necessity  for  providing 
storage  for  silage  to  last  more  than  a  year  than  for 
providing  the  same  for  crops  that  are  cured  in  the 
dry  form. 

Food  More  Palatable. — When  food  is  properly 
preserved  in  the  silo  it  is  certainly  more  palatable 
than  when  fed  in  the  dry  form.  This  means  that 
a  less  proportion  of  the  food  will  be  wasted  in  feed- 
ing. In  fact,  there  should  be  but  little  waste  in  feed- 
ing silage  in  any  instance  and  in  many  instances 
none  at  all.  However  the  liability  of  improper 
curing  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  It  is  easily  possible 
to  make  silage  that  will  not  be  palatable,  as  for  in- 
stance, when  it  is  excessively  acid,  or  when  it  con- 
tains more  or  less  of  dry  mold. 

When  food  is  thus  fed  in  a  succulent  condition, 
up  to  a  certain  limit  at  least,  it  acts  beneficially  on 
the  digestive  organs.  It  tends  to  relieve  consti- 
pation induced  by  feeding  dry  food  when  made  a 
part  of  the  ration,  and  consequently  it  acts  bene- 
ficially on  the  health  of  the  animals.  But  when  fed 
in  excess,  as  when  it  is  made  the  sole  ration  for  any 
lengthened  period,  or  when  it  is  inferior  in  quality, 


262  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

such  feeding  may  injure  the  animals  and  even 
seriously.  The  difference  in  the  effects  produced  on 
digestion  by  feeding  the  same  kind  of  food  in  the 
green  and  dried  forms  respectively,  is  well  brought 
out  in  the  feeding  of  grass  when  in  the  most  com- 
plete state  of  succulence  and  in  feeding  the  same 
as  hay. 

Economy  in  Storage  Space. — The  silo  is  eco- 
nomical of  space  in  storing  food.  In  other  words 
it  requires  a  much  less  area  to  store  food  in 
the  green  form  than  to  store  it  when  dried.  This 
means  therefore  that  a  given  amount  of  green  food 
can  usually  be  stored  in  a  silo  at  a  less  cost  for  the 
storage  accommodation  than  would  be  entailed  in 
providing  storage  room  for  the  same  in  the  dried 
form. 

This  advantage  is  however  to  some  extent  offset 
by  other  considerations.  First,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  some  prevision  by  way  of  storage  for  other 
food.  When  the  expense  of  providing  storage  for 
both  green  and  dry  food  cannot  be  borne  by  the 
farmer,  he  can  better  do  without  the  storage  for  the 
green  food.  Second,  the  silo  in  some  of  its  forms 
wears  out  more  quickly  than  structures  made  to 
receive  dry  food.  The  saving  in  storage  space 
effected  by  the  silo  is  most  apparent  when  large 
quantities  of  food  are  to  be  handled. 

Economy  in  Labor  When  Feeding. — The  silo  is 
economical  in  labor  when  feeding  the  food.  It  can 
usually  be  located  so  that  the  food  is  nearer  to  the 
place  of  feeding  than  it  would  be  possible  to  store 
equal  quantities  of  dry  food  in  the  cured  form.  It 
is  easily  handled  because  of  its  lack  of  bulkiness  and 


THE    BENEFITS    FROM    SILOING    CROPS.        263 

because  it  is  more  commonly  fed  in  the  cut  form. 
More  especially  is  this  true  of  silage  fed  from  a 
truck  in  properly  constructed  stables.  It  also  ob- 
viates the  necessity  of  cutting  or  chaffing,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  other  fodder  to  provide  a  bulk 
factor  with  which  to  mix  the  meal  fed,  since  the  meal 
so  fed  can  be  mixed  with  the  silage.  But  these 
benefits  do  not  apply  equally  when  the  silage  is  made 
in  the  uncut  form,  that  is.  when  it  is  put  into  the  silo 
without  running  it  through  a  cutting  box. 

PRACTICAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  following  considerations  based,  in  part  at 
least,  on  what  has  already  been  said  on  the  benefits 
from  soiling  crops  will  now  be  discussed,  viz. : — 
i,  The  benefits  from  the  silo  do  not  apply  equally 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  2,  Because  of  this,  while 
in  some  sections  silos  are,  in  a  sense,  indispensable, 
in  others  the  wisdom  of  building  them  may  well  be 
called  in  question.  3,  In  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  therefore,  the  relative  distribution  of 
silos  (if  the  term  may  be  thus  used)  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  can  only  be  given  with  approxi- 
mate correctness. 

Benefits  Do  Not  Apply  Equally. — That  the 
benefits  from  the  silo  do  not  apply  equally  is  easy  of 
demonstration.  These  will  be  relatively  greater : — 
I,  When  more  or  less  difficulty  is  usually  experienced 
in  curing  crops  in  the  dried  form.  2,  In  localities 
where  building  materials  are  relatively  dear.  3, 
Where  the  winters  are  relatively  long.  4,  Where 
the  staple  crops  grown  are  not  easily  preserved 


264  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

without  loss  in  the  dried  form.  And  5,  Where  a 
large  number  of  the  farmers  relatively  are  engaged 
in  dairying. 

In  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  the  precipita- 
tion is  frequently  so  great  as  to  imperil  crops  while 
they  are  being  cured.  In  nearly  all  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  valleys  rain  is  practically  unknown  in 
harvest  time.  The  necessity  for  siloing  crops  in  the 
former  therefore  will  always  be  greater  than  in  the 
latter.  In  the  New  England  states  snow  falls 
abundantly  and  sometimes  in  the  form  of  sleet. 
Because  of  this  corn  in  the  shock  is  oftentimes  ren- 
derd  inaccessible  during  certain  portions  of  the 
winter.  In  the  semi-arid  belt  the  snow  fall  is  usually 
light.  In  the  latter  therefore  the  silo  is  much  less  of 
a  necessity  than  in  the  former. 

In  timber  areas  lumber  and  other  building 
materials  are  relatively  cheap.  Far  out  on  the  tree- 
less prairies  they  are  relatively  dear,  other  things 
being  equal  therefore,  the  benefits  from  the  silo 
should  be  greater  on  the  prairie  than  in  the  timber 
country,  since  about  three  times  as  much  food  can 
be  stored  in  the  silo  as  in  an  equal  space  in  ordinary 
farm  buildings. 

North  of  the  fortieth  parallel  of  latitude  soiling- 
food  cannot  usually  be  provided  from  the  fields 
earlier  than  May  nor  later  than  November.  The 
further  northward  from  the  said  parallel  that  any 
place  is  located  the  shorter  does  the  season  become 
for  providing  such  food. 

On  the  other  hand  the  further  south  from  the 
same  parallel  that  any  place  is  situated,  the  longer  is 
the  season  during  which  green  food  may  be  provided 


THE   BENEFITS    FROM    SILOING   CROPS.        265 

directly  from  the  fields.  The  season,  therefore, 
for  providing  soiling  food  directly  in  areas  as  far 
northward  as  in  Canada,  does  not  cover  a  larger 
period  than  three  to  four  months,  other  things  being 
equal,  therefore,  the  further  northward  the  location 
the  greater  will  be  the  necessity  for  siloing  the  food. 

Some  crops  are  much  more  difficult  than  others 
to  cure  in  the  dry  form.  Such  are  corn,  sorghum, 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  the  cow  pea  and  the 
soy  bean.  The  necessity  for  silos  therefore  is 
usually  greater  when  these  are  staple  crops  than 
when  they  are  not.  The  non-saccharine  sorghums 
however  have  greater  adaptation  for  dry  conditions, 
as  shown  in  Chapter  IV,  Part  i.,  hence  it  is  not  so 
necessary  to  make  these  into  silage,  since  the  weather 
is  favorable  to  curing  them  in  the  dried  form. 

Some  sections  of  the  country  are  almost  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  the  production  of  dairy  products. 
Other  sections  produce  virtually  none  of  these.  The 
close  relation  between  succulent  foods  and  successful 
dairying  is  generally  recognized.  It  follows  there- 
fore, other  things  being  equal,  that  the  necessity  for 
the  silo  will  grow  with  the  growth  of  dairying. 

Silos  Not  Always  a  Necessity. — From  what  has 
been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  it  will  be 
evident  that  silos  are  not  nearly  so  much  of  a  neces- 
sity in  some  places  as  in  others,  and  it  would  not  be 
going  too  far  perhaps  to  say  that  in  certain  areas 
they  are  not  a  necessity  to  any  extent.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  moist  New  England  states  which  produce 
corn  in  good  form  for  the  silo,  the  necessity  for  silos 
will  be  greater  than  in  the  moist  climate  on  the  Pacific 
coast  in  areas  too  cool  for  the  successful  growth  of 


266  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

corn.  It  is  equally  apparent  that  in  the  states  which 
border  upon  the  Great  Lakes,  the  necessity  for  the 
silo  is  much  greater  than  in  the  semi-arid  belt  east 
of  the  Rocky  mountains,  or  in  the  Rocky  mountain 
valleys  where  irrigation  is  practiced.  In  the  former 
corn  grows  abundantly.  In  summer  there  is  usually 
sufficient  moisture  and  in  winter  the  snow  frequently 
falls  deep  and  piles  up  around  the  corn  shocks.  In 
the  latter  the  precipitation  almost  ceases  in  summer,, 
and  the  snow  fall  is  usually  light.  Dairying  is  not 
much  practiced  in  the  semi-arid  region,  nor  is  it  ever 
likely  to  be  the  dominant  agricultural  industry  in  the 
same.  It  would  not  be  incorrect  therefore  to  affirm 
that  there  is  no  great  necessity  for  silos  in  the  dry 
areas  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  nor  would  the 
necessity  for  them  seem  to  be  very  great  in  those 
sections  of  the  western  and  southwestern  states 
which  produce  alfalfa  abundantly.  The  latter  can 
be  cured  almost  without  hazard  in  those  rainless 
summer  areas,  on  the  other  hand  there  may  be  in- 
stances even  in  the  semi-arid  region  and  in  the  dry 
southwestern  states  where  silos  may  be  made  to 
render  good  service. 

In  some  of  the  corn  growing  prairie  states,  it 
has  been  argued  that  silos  are  a  necessity  because 
of  the  amount  of  soil  that  is  frequently  deposited  on 
the  corn  or  sorghum  shocks  by  the  prairie  winds,  and 
the  argument  has  some  force.  But  the  difficulty 
may  be  met  by  stacking  the  corn  or  sorghum  as  soon 
as  cured. 

Distribution  of  Silos. — By  the  term  distribution 
of  silos  is  meant  their  relative  adaptation  to  the 
needs  of  various  sections  of  the  country.  The 


THE    BENEFITS    FROM    SILOING   CROPS.        267 

discussion  of  this  question  will  be  simplified  by 
dividing  the  country  into  sections  where  the  con- 
ditions favorable  or  otherwise  to  the  growing  of 
silo  crops  and  to  the  curing  of  the  same  are  not 
greatly  dissimilar.  The  division  submitted  below 
may  seem  somewhat  arbitrary,  but  it  will  probably 
be  found  at  least  approximately  correct. 

Division  No.  i  will  cover  those  portions  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river  and  Lake  Superior,  and  north  of  the  Ohio  and 
Potomac  rivers.  Division  No.  2  will  embrace  those 
states  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  south  of  the 
Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers.  Division  No.  3  will  cover 
the  states  of  the  Union  and  the  provinces  of  Canada 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  Lake  Superior. 

In  Division  No.  i,  the  silo  will  always  render 
greater  service  than  in  Divisions  Nos.  2  and  3.  The 
moist  climate  that  covers  much  of  the  area,  the  rela- 
tively long  winters  with  the  rain,  sleet  and  snow  that 
characterize  them,  and  the  general  diffusion  of 
dairying  throughout  the  division,  emphasize  the 
value  of  the  silo.  There  is  no  state  of  the  Union,  or 
province  of  Canada  included  in  this  division  in  which 
the  silo  may  not  be  made  to  render  excellent  service, 
especially  to  those  who  keep  live  stock  in  any  consid- 
erable numbers. 

In  Division  No.  2  the  silo  will  be  less  helpful 
relatively  than  in  Division  No.  I,  because  of  the 
shorter  winters  and  the  less  attention  given  to  dairy- 
ing, and  they  will  be  more  helpful  than  in  Section  3, 
because  of  the  more  rainy  character  of  the  climate. 

In  Section  No.  3,  which  covers  all  the  best 
alfalfa  producing  areas  in  the  United  States,  silos 


268  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

are  needed  the  least,  for  reasons  already  given.  In 
a  portion  of  the  states  which  border  upon  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  the  harvests  are  practically  rainless. 
This  is  true  even  of  the  strip  of  country  west  of  the 
Cascades  in  which  the  precipitation  is  frequent  and 
almost  excessive  during  the  season  of  growth.  In 
the  same  area  lumber  is  also  very  cheap,  hence  the 
provision  for  the  storage  of  crops  in  the  cured  form, 
need  not  be  costly. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FACTS  RELATING  TO  SILO  CONSTRUCTION. 

Before  building  a  silo  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  the  location,  and  form 
of  the  same,  and  to  many  things  that  have  an 
important  bearing  on  the  work.  These  are  such  as 
relate  to  the  size  of  the  silo ;  the  materials  to  be  used 
in  building  it;  the  nature  of  the  foundation  and  of 
the  floor  required;  the  character  of  the  lining;  the 
necessity  for  partitions  and  the  method  of  con- 
structing them;  the  placing  of  the  doors  and  also 
their  form;  and  the  character  of  the  roof,  when  a 
roof  is  necessary.  A  brief  discussion  of  these 
questions,  therefore,  will  precede  what  will  be  given 
in  detail  in  Chapter  IV,  and,  in  regular  sequence, 
regarding  the  construction  of  those  forms  of  the 
silo  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  best  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  farmer. 

Locating  the  Silo. — The  locating  of  the  silo  will 
depend  on  conditions  such  as  relate  to  the  amount 
of  barn  or  stable  room  available,  the  relation  of  the 
stables  to  the  mows,  and  to  other  places  where  food 
is  stored,  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  basement  in  a 
barn,  and  the  nature  of  the  climate. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  silo  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  center  of  feeding, 
when  it  can  be  located  in  close  proximity  to  the 

269 


27O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

mangers  in  which  the  food  is  consumed,  the  saving 
in  the  labor  of  feeding  is  very  great,  as  compared 
with  the  same  when  the  silo  is  more  distant.  The 
location  of  the  silo,  therefore,  should  be  given  the 
most  careful  thought. 

In  cold  latitudes  the  necessity  for  good  barns 
and  warm  stables  is  much  greater  than  in  those  that 
are  mild.  In  the  former,  therefore,  it  will  be  much 
easier  to  find  room  for  the  silo  inside  than  under 
conditions  the  opposite.  When  the  silo  can  con- 
veniently be  built  under  cover,  that  is  to  say,  when  it 
can  be  made  a  part  of  the  barn,  it  ought  to  be  so 
built.  Locating  it  thus  should  prove  economical, 
as  it  will  not  require  to  be  roofed,  unless  the  top  of 
the  silo  should  project  up  above  the  roof  of  the  build- 
ing of  which  it  forms  a  part.  The  wall  of  the  build- 
ing may  usually  be  made  to  form  one  wall  of  the  silo, 
when  the  latter  is  square  or  rectangular  in  shape. 
The  exposed  surface  of  the  silage,  when  it  is  being 
fed,  will  usually  be  sufficiently  protected  from  frost, 
and  the  work  of  feeding  may  be  done  without 
discomfort  in  the  coldest  weather. 

A  basement  barn  furnishes  ideal  conditions  for 
building  a  silo  when  the  stables  for  the  stock  are  in 
the  basement,  and,  in  passing,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  when  basement  barns  are  properly  planned,  they 
are  economical  of  space,  in  cost  of  roofing  material, 
and  also  in  construction,  at  least  when  their  greater 
duration  is  taken  into  account.  They  are  also  labor 
saving  while  the  food  is  being  fed,  and  they  are  a 
source  of  much  comfort  to  the  animals  kept  in  them 
in  summer,  as  well  as  in  winter,  when  the  manage- 
ment is  as  it  ought  to  be.  These  opinions  may  not 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO   CONSTRUCTION.    27! 

be  generally  accepted,  but  it  is  more  than  doubtful  if 
any  one  of  them  can  be  gainsaid. 

The  silo  may  be  made  to  occupy  a  section  of 
the  basement,  and  it  may  be  located  in  the  center  of 
one  side  of  the  same,  or  in  the  center  of  that 
part  occupied  by  live  stock.  In  round,  or  octagonal 
barns,  the  silo  is  usually  placed  in  the  center.  In  all 
instances  in  which  the  silo  is  built  in  the  basement 
it  is  made  to  extend  upward  also  into  the  barn  over 
the  basement,  and  in  any  event,  the  doors  should 
open  into  a  feed  room  or  passageway.  It  is  usually 
more  convenient  to  handle  the  food  when  the  silo 
can  be  located  so  that  it  will  be  adjacent  to  the  room 
in  which  meal  and  other  food  is  mixed  for  the  stock. 
In  outbuildings  without  a  basement,  the  silo  may  be 
made  to  occupy  a  part  of  the  bay  or  mow,  but  under 
these  conditions  it  can  seldom  be  located  so  con- 
veniently for  feeding  as  in  a  basement,  for  reasons 
that  will  be  manifest.  And  usually  the  roof  of  the 
silo  will  of  necessity  be  above  the  roof  of  the  out- 
building, in  order  to  secure  sufficient  hight  in  the 
silo. 

When  the  "silo  must  needs  be  located  outside 
the  barn  or  stable,  it  should  be  placed  as  near  to  it 
as  possible.  If  square  or  rectangular  it  may  be 
built  against  the  outbuilding.  The  wall  of  the 
latter  duly  lined  will  then  form  one  wall  of  the 
silo.  The  doors  will  then  open  into  the  outbuild- 
ing. If  the  silo  is  round,  it  should,  if  possible,  be 
placed  near  to  the  outbuilding.  The  distance 
therefrom  should  at  most  be  not  more  than  a  few 
feet.  A  roofed  passageway  may  then  be  con- 
structed from  the  silo  to  the  outbuilding,  and  into 


272  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

this  passageway  the  doors  of  the  silo  should  open. 
The  passageway  should  be  amply  provided  with 
light.  When  silos  are  located  outside  the  barn, 
stable  or  shed  in  which  live  stock  are  fed  it  is  simply 
impossible  to  locate  them  so  conveniently  to  the 
center  of  feeding  as  when  they  form  a  part  of  one 
or  the  other  of  those  buildings. 

Different  Forms  of  Construction. — In  form, 
silos  have  been  built  square,  rectangular,  octagonal, 
and  round  or  circular.  Until  within  a  comparatively 
recent  period  the  rectangular  form  was  usually 
adopted  by  those  who  built  silos,  but,  since  about 
1890  the  round  silo  has  come  so  generally  into  favor 
that  in  a  very  considerable  degree  it  is  superseding 
the  rectangular  mode  of  construction. 

The  square  silo  may  be  somewhat  more  cheaply 
constructed  than  the  rectangular  silo  of  equal  ca- 
pacity, since  the  wall  space  is  not  so  much.  When 
the  conditions  are  suitable  for  placing  it,  and  where 
the  size  is  nicely  adjusted  to  the  amount  of  silage 
required,  the  square  silo  would  seem  preferable  to 
the  rectangular  form.  But  if  a  division  is  to  be 
made  in  the  silo,  it  will  prove  more  'costly  to  make 
it  than  in  a  rectangular  silo,  since  the  space  across 
it  is  relatively  greater.  Both  square  and  rectan- 
gular silos  are  more  commonly  placed  inside  of  a 
barn  or  stable,  and  within  these  it  is  not  generally 
so  easy  to  secure  space  of  the  proper  dimensions  for 
a  square  as  for  a  rectangular  silo. 

The  rectangular  silo  has  been  found  specially 
adapted  for  being  placed  within  a  building  that  is  in 
process  of  erection  or  that  is  already  built.  When 
wanted,  partitions  can  be  put  into  it  at  a  minimum  oi 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO   CONSTRUCTION.    273 

cost,  because  of  its  shape.  The  objections  to  the 
rectangular  as  well  as  to  the  square  silo  are,  first, 
that  difficulty  has  oftentimes  been  found  in  keeping 
the  walls  from  spreading,  and  so  letting  air  into  the 
silage,  and  second,  that  the  silage  does  not  settle  so 
readily  in  either  of  these  forms  of  silo  as  in  a  round 
silo,  hence  there  is  more  waste  in  the  silage.  Par- 
ticularly is  this  true  of  the  corners.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  objections,  rectangular  silos  will  probably 
be  built  for  many  years  to  come,  hence  the  method 
of  building  them  will  in  due  time  be  given  with 
some  minuteness  in  details.  And  what  will  be  said 
of  the  construction  of  rectangular  silos  will  also 
apply  to  the  construction  of  square  silos. 

The  octagonal  silo  as  the  name  implies  is  a  silo 
with  eight  sides.  The  chief  advantage  gained  in 
this  form  of  construction,  as  compared  with  the 
square  or  rectangular  silo  is  found  in  the  less  acute 
character  of  the  angles  within  the  same.  Also  from 
the  nature  of  their  construction,  the  walls  are  so 
strong  that  they  are  not  liable  to  spread,  at  least, 
not  in  a  silo  of,  ordinary  dimensions.  Moreover, 
some  saving  in  lumber  is  effected  by  increasing  the 
space  between  the  girts  from  the  bottom  upwards. 
But  there  are  two  strong  objections  to  this  form  of 
silo.  First,  it  is  ill  adapted  to  being  placed  within  a 
building  because  of  its  shape,  and  second,  the  ven- 
tilation of  the  spaces  within  the  walls  is  difficult, 
because  of  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  frame. 
The  lining  is  nailed  onto  girts  rather  than  onto  up- 
right studs,  and  these  girts  being  horizontal  when 
in  position  in  the  wall,  give  rise  to  the  difficulty 
mentioned.  Because  of  these  objections,  it  is  not 
18 


274  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

probable  that  octagonal  silos  will  be  numerously 
built. 

Round  silos  can  usually  be  built  more  cheaply 
than  those  that  are  rectangular.  They  have  greater 
relative  capacity,  and  no  form  of  silo  can  be  built  that 
to  so  great  an  extent  facilitates  the  even  settling  of 
the  silage.  The  chief  objections  to  round  silos  are, 
first,  that  they  cannot  in  many  instances  be  placed 
within  a  building  without  loss  of  space,  and  second, 
that  it  is  scarcely  practical  to  use  partitions  in  them. 
If  the  round  silo  is  placed  in  the  center  of  a  circular 
building,  its  position  there  will  result  in  no  waste 
of  space,  and  but  little  space  will  be  lost  if  the  silo 
is  partly  within  the  building  and  partly  without. 
But  when  placed  in  a  mow,  or  bay,  or  cellar,  it  may 
not  be  easy  to  use  to  the  best  advantage  the  space 
in  that  part  of  the  square  in  which  the  round  silo  is, 
and  which  is  not  covered  by  the  same.  In  stave 
silos  partitions  cannot  be  used,  as  their  presence 
would  interfere  with  the  occasional  tightening  of 
the  hoops  which  is  frequently  necessary  when  using 
them.  In  round  silos  of  frame  construction  a  par- 
tition could  be  used.  But  such  a  partition  would 
materially  hinder  the  even  settling  of  the  silage. 
Notwithstanding  the  objections  stated,  the  round 
silo  is  likely  to  be  the  most  in  favor  in  the  future. 
It  will  therefore  be  carefully  considered  in  the  proper 
place. 

The  Size  of  Silos. — In  determining  the  size  of  a 
silo  not  yet  built,  several  considerations  present 
themselves.  These  include  the  size  of  the  herd  or 
flock  which  at  present  and  also  prospectively  is  to 
be  fed  from  it,  the  probable  duration  of  the  period 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO   CONSTRUCTION.    275 

each  year  during  which  silage  is  to  be  fed,  and 
also  the  settling  of  the  silage  after  it  has  been  put 
into  the  silo. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  if  a  silo  is  to  be 
filled  quickly,  the  silage  will  settle  to  about  one- 
third  of  its  entire  depth.  If  material  is  added  for 
silage  a  second  time  and  perhaps  a  third  time,  it  may 
be  possible  to  have  the  settled  silage  fill  the  silo  to  at 
least  three-fourths  of  the  entire  hight  of  the  same. 
This,  however,  will  vary  with  the  hight  of  the  silo. 
The  deeper  the  silo  the  less  will  be  the  unoccupied 
space  at  the  top  when  the  silage  has  settled.  The 
capacity  of  the  empty  silo,  therefore,  will  be  about 
twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  that  of  the  filled  silo, 
and  this  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  in  determining 
the  size  of  the  silo  about  to  be  built.  Twenty-five 
per  cent,  may  be  considered  too  large  an  allowance 
for  loss  of  space  in  the  settling  of  the  silage,  but 
something  will  have  to  be  added  for  waste  from 
spoiled  silage  while  curing,  and  from  exposure  in 
feeding,  hence,  a  silo  should  usually  be  built  with  at 
least  one-fourth  greater  capacity  than  would  suffice 
to  supply  the  needs  of  the  stock,  could  it  be  filled  to 
the  top  with  good  silage. 

The  amount  of  silage  that  may  be  fed  daily  to 
a  dairy  cow  varies  from,  say  thirty  to  fifty  pounds 
per  day.  Forty  pounds  per  day  may  be  set  down  as 
average.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  settled 
silage  varies  with  the  depth  of  the  silo  and  the  part 
from  which  it  is  taken  and  also  with  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  silage.  The  variation  runs  from 
say  thirty  to  fifty  pounds.  It  would  therefore  be 
at  least  approximately  correct  to  say  that  a  cubic 


276  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

foot  of  settled  silage  will  weigh  about  forty  pounds, 
Or,  in  other  words,  that  a  cubic  foot  of  such  silage 
will  supply  a  head  of  cattle  with  all  that  it  ought  to 
have  of  that  kind  of  food  for  one  day.  On  such  a 
basis  the  proper  size  for  a  silo  not  yet  built  can  easily 
be  computed. 

If  the  silo  is  square  or  oblong,  the  length  in  feet 
inside  multiplied  by  the  width  and  again  by  the 
hight,  will  give  the  entire  number  of  cubic  feet  in 
the  silo.  The  number  of  days  during  which  an 
animal  is  to  be  fed  on  the  basis  stated  above  multi- 
plied by  one  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
silage  required  to  feed  one  animal  for  the  requisite 
time.  This  divided  into  the  cubic  feet  in  the  silo 
after  one-fourth  has  been  deducted  from  the  same, 
will  give  the  whole  number  of  cows  to  be  fed  thus 
for  the  time  fixed  upon. 

For  example : — Suppose  a  silo  is  to  be  built  to 
meet  the  needs  of  twenty  cows  for  six  months  in  the 
year.  One  cow  will  consume  the  silage  in  180 
cubic  feet  in  that  time  if  fed  forty  pounds  of  silage 
daily,  and  twenty  cows  will  consume  the  silage  in 
3,600  cubic  feet.  But  since  one- fourth  of  the  space 
is  waste  one-third  of  3,600  cubic  feet  or  1,200  cubic 
feet  must  be  added  to  give  the  capacity  of  the  silo 
required  which  would  make  4,800  cubic  feet.  Now 
suppose  twenty-five  feet  is  fixed  upon  as  the  hight 
for  the  silo  and  twelve  feet  as  the  width  inside,  one 
foot  in  length  of  such  a  silo  will  hold  300  cubic 
feet  of  silage.  To  hold  4,800  cubic  feet  therefore 
would  require  a  silo  sixteen  feet  long  inside. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  round  silo  in  cubic 
feet,  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter,  in  feet, 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO    CONSTRUCTION.    277 

by  the  hight  in  feet,  then  multiply  the  product  by 
.7854  which  gives  the  cubic  contents.  For  example, 
suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  contents  in  cubic 
feet  of  a  round  silo  fifteen  feet  in  diameter  and 
twenty  feet  high,  the  square  of  fifteen,  the  diameter, 
equals  225,  which  multiplied  by  the  hight,  twenty 
feet,  gives  4,500.  This  multiplied  by  .7854  gives 
3534.3  cubic  feet.  But  one-fourth  must  be  allowed 
for  waste  space  and  waste  silage,  which  leaves 
2650.725  cubic  feet  as  the  capacity  of  the  silo  for 
good  silage.  This  silage  will  average  about  forty 
pounds  to  the  cubic  foot  which  will  give  106,029 
pounds  or  53  tons. 

While  it  may  be  easily  possible  to  adjust  the 
size  of  the  silo  to  the  present  or  prospective  needs 
of  the  stock,  it  is  sometimes  wiser  to  build  two  or 
more  silos  rather  than  to  try  to  put  all  the  silage 
into  one.  In  feeding  silage,  about  two  inches  in  depth 
of  the  exposed  surface  should  be  removed  daily  to 
prevent  waste  from  unduly  prolonged  exposure,  and 
when  feeding  silage  in  warm  weather,  about  three 
inches  of  the  same  should  be  removed  daily.  In  a 
large  silo  such  a  depth  of  surface  would  probably  be 
in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the  stock.  In  such  an 
instance,  therefore,  it  would  be  better  to  erect  two 
small  silos,  if  built  on  the  plan  of  the  round  structure, 
than  to  build  one  large  silo  of  equal  capacity.  But 
in  rectangular  silos  the  difficulty  mentioned  may  be 
obviated  by  putting  in  one  or  more  partitions. 

Materials  Used  in  Silos. — Silos  differ  first, 
in  the  materials  used  in  their  construction,  and 
second  in  the  form  given  to  them.  The  materials 
that  have  been  used  in  building  silos  include  wood. 


278  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

stone,  concrete  or  grout,  bricks  and  metal.  More 
than  one  class  of  the  materials  named  is  sometimes 
used  in  building  the  same  silo.  They  are  desig- 
nated chiefly  by  the  material  used  in  their  construc- 
tion. For  instance  a  stone  silo  though  lined  with 
bricks  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a  stone  silo. 

Metal  silos,  according  to  Prof.  Woll,  are  built  of 
homogenous  steel  plate,  lapped  and  double  riveted 
so  as  to  make  them  tight.  They  are  objectionable, 
at  present,  because  of  their  cost ;  because  of  the  ease 
with  which  frost  penetrates  them  and  because  of 
the  quickness  with  which  they  corrode.  It  has  been 
computed  that  they  cost  about  twice  as  much  as 
stone  silos  of  similar  capacity,  while  the  latter  are 
much  more  enduring.  Being  easily  penetrated  by 
frost,  this  one  objection  would  render  them  unsuit- 
able for  use  in  a  northern  climate.  Nor  has  any 
preservative  been  found  up  to  the  present  time  that 
can  be  applied  to  them  inside  which  will  effectively 
resist  for  any  lengthened  period  the  corroding  in- 
fluences of  the  silage  juices.  Because  of  these 
objections,  metal  silos  will  not  be  further  considered. 

Concrete  or  grout  silos  have  the  walls  made  of 
small  stones  held  together  by  well  tempered  mortar. 
In  localities  where  the  materials  of  construction 
abound,  it  may  be  proper  to  use  them,  but  since  in 
cold  climates  the  walls  must  be  protected  by  an  outer 
lining  of  wood  with  an  air  space  between,  their 
construction,  at  the  best,  is  costly.  When  used  they 
should  be  built  circular  in  form,  if  practicable  in  the 
location  chosen,  to  facilitate  the  even  settling  of  the 
silage,  and  they  should  also  be  lined  inside  with 
cement,  or,  if  unprotected  outside,  with  bricks  and 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO   CONSTRUCTION.    279 

then  cement.  Since  the  materials  for  concrete  silos 
are  only  found  in  certain  localities,  and  since  the 
essential  features  of  construction  are  the  same  as  in 
stone  silos  described  later,  the  building  of  concrete 
silos  will  not  be  further  discussed. 

Brick  silos,  as  the  name  would  indicate,  are  made 
of  bricks.  They  have  not  been  extensively  tried, 
it  may  be,  because  of  the  costliness  of  the  material. 
In  northerly  latitudes  they  too  would  also  probably 
require  a  lining  of  boards  on  the  outside  to  keep  out 
the  frost,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  concrete  and 
stone  silos,  but  the  walls  could,  of  course,  be  made 
thick  enough  to  protect  the  silage  unless  such  a 
method  should  prove  too  costly.  In  some  instances 
stone  silos  have  been  lined  with  bricks  and  with 
manifest  advantage.  This  feature  of  the  use  of 
bricks  in  silo  construction  will  be  referred  to  again. 
Stone  silos  are,  of  course,  built  of  stone  and  mor- 
tar. Almost  any  kind  of  stone  of  suitable  dimen- 
sions may  be  used  in  their  construction.  The 
chief  objection  to  stone  silos  is  their  costliness. 
Notwithstanding,  when  the  wide  distribution  of 
stone  is  considered  and  when  its  durability  is  also 
taken  into  account,  it  would  seem  to  be  eminently 
adapted  to  the  building  of  silos.  In  the  southern 
half  of  the  United  States  the  outside  lining  of  wood, 
which  some  authorities  claim  is  necessary  in  the 
northern  states,  could  certainly  be  dispensed  with. 
Experience  is  further  demonstrating  the  fact  that 
stone  silos  may  also  be  erected  in  the  northern  states 
without  the  necessity  of  protecting  them  with  an 
outer  lining  of  wood.  (See  Page  320.)  Stone  silos 
are  therefore  likely  to  grow  in  favor.  The  mode  of 


28O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

building  them  therefore  will  be  discussed  at  some 
length.  (See  Page  317.) 

Wood  silOvS  are  such  as  are  constructed  wholly 
of  wood,  but  usually  resting  on  a  foundation  of 
stone  or  concrete.  Because  of  the  relative  cheap- 
ness of  construction  in  the  past,  there  is  an  over- 
whelming preponderance  in  the  number  of  the  silos 
that  have  been  built  of  wood.  The  kinds  of  wood 
chiefly  used  in  their  construction  have  been  pine  in 
certain  of  its  species,  as  the  white  and  yellow,  the 
southern  cypress  and  the  Douglas  fir.  But  any  kind 
of  wood  will  answer  that  is  durable,  cheap  and  that 
does  not  warp.  The  spruce  of  the  Puget  Sound 
country  would  probably  prove  very  suitable  and 
possibly  the  hemlock  also.  The  chief  objection  to 
wood  silos  is  their  want  of  durability.  In  the  not 
distant  future  they  must  also  become  more  costly 
with  the  increasing  dearness  of  lumber,  and  as  they 
do  stone  silos  will  grow  in  favor.  The  construction 
of  certain  forms  of  the  wood  silo  will  be  discussed 
at  some  length. 

Foundation  for  Silos. — Whatever  the  form  of 
silo  built,  it  ought  to  rest  on  a  foundation  that  is  not 
subject  to  decay.  The  foundation  therefore  should 
not  be  of  wood.  Stone  will  be  the  material  most 
commonly  used,  though  there  may  be  some  instances 
in  which  bricks  would  be  even  less  costly.  Usually 
the  foundation  is  sunk  beneath  the  line  of  frost,  but 
this  is  not  always  necessary.  In  soils  which  hold 
much  water,  every  care  should  be  taken  to  carry  it 
away,  as  fast  as  it  accumulates,  by  tiles  laid  for  the 
purpose.  When  silos  are  sunk  into  the  ground,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  have  the  foundation  go  down 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO   CONSTRUCTION.    28  £ 

more  deeply  than  the  floor  of  the  silo.  And  the 
wall  up  to  the  surface  should  be  of  stone  whatever 
may  be  the  materials  used  in  the  structure  above 
the  ground.  If  the  wall  is  carried  up  for  a  short 
distance  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is  then 
banked  with  earth  it  will  be  better  protected  from 
surface  water.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  the  wood 
portion  of  silos  away  entirely  from  contact  with  the 
earth  lest  decay  should  be  induced.  The  founda- 
tion is  usually  made  wider  than  the  structure  which 
it  sustains,  but  not  in  all  instances.  The  precise 
character  of  the  foundation  for  the  different  forms 
of  silos  discussed  will  be  explained  when  treating  of 
these.  (See  Pages  297,  310  and  318.)  . 

Floors  in  Silos. — If  the  earth  that  forms  the 
floor  of  a  silo  is  dry  all  the  year,  no  other  floor  is 
needed  unless  rats  should  begin  to  make  trouble.  If 
there  is  a  liability  to  the  presence  of  an  undue 
amount  of  moisture,  measures  must  be  taken  to 
carry  it  away,  or  much  damage  will  result  to  the 
silage.  Tiles  may  be  laid  around  inside  the  silo  and 
at  some  distance  from  the  wall.  Provision  must 
then  be  made  for  carrying  away  the  water  that  col- 
lects in  these  through  some  outlet  which  leads  to 
lower  ground.  And  where  grout  and  cement  floors 
are  made  in  silos,  the  necessity  for  drainage  is  all 
the  greater  in  order  to  protect  the  floors  as  well  as 
the  silage.  In  silos  built  on  the  level,  drainage  is 
not  usually  necessary.  And  in  many  instances  it  k 
will  be  found  that  the  drainage  made  to  protect  the 
wall  will  also  furnish  sufficient  drainage  for  the 
floor  of  the  silo. 

When  it  is  thought  best  to  put  in  a  floor,  the 


282  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

materials  may  consist  of  what  is  termed  grout  or 
concrete.  The  cement  floor  may  be  made  by  cov- 
ering the  ground  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  with 
coarse  gravel  or  small  stones.  These  are  covered 
with  a  good  coating  of  water  lime,  not  less  than  two 
or  three  inches,  and  over  all  is  put  a  layer  of  good 
cement  of  say  half  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness. 
Where  bricks  are  used  they  should  be  laid  in  cement, 
and  two  layers  would  probably  prove  more  satis- 
factory than  one.  Floors  so  expensive  however 
are  seldom  necessary. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  floor  of  the  silo 
should  slope  downward  toward  the  center  to  facili- 
tate the  even  settling  of  the  silage,  but  whether  the 
end  thus  sought  is  certainly  attained  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  been  proved.  When  silo  floors  are 
thus  shaped,  drainage  where  it  is  necessary,  should 
lead  from  the  center.  Tf  the  floor  is  rather  higher 
at  the  center  than  the  sides,  then  drainage  into  tiles 
laid  around  inside  the  walls  would  be  facilitated. 

Linings  for  Silos. — The  various  materials  that 
have  been  used  for  lining  silos  include  boards,  ce- 
ment, water  lime,  shingles,  brick,  metal  and  tarred 
paper. 

Board  linings  are  by  far  the  most  frequently 
used  in  silos,  and  except  in  the  case  of  cement  they 
have  been  found  the  best.  Various  forms  of  board 
linings  have  been  used.  The  best  results  have  been 
obtained  from  using  one  thickness  of  matched  lum- 
ber with  tarred  paper  under  it,  or  two  thicknesses  of 
matched  boards  with  tarred  paper  between.  The  first 
is  of  course  the  cheaper  method  and  should  there- 
fore be  given  the  preference  wherever  it  will  suffice 


FACTS   RELATING   TO   SILO    CONSTRUCTION.    283 

to  exclude  frost.  The  surface  of  the  boards  should 
be  smooth  to  facilitate  the  settling  of  the  silage. 

Cement  lining  has  on  the  whole  proved  satis- 
factory, more  especially  on  silos  built  of  stone  and 
lined,  or  not  lined  with  bricks.  More  commonly  it  is 
used  to  line  stone,  brick  oi  grout  silos.  The  acids 
in  the  silage  have  in  many  instances  softened  the 
cement  on  the  surface  next  to  the  silage,  so  that 
to  a  greater  or  a  less  extent,  the  cement  particles 
have  crumbled.  Because  of  this  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  apply  cement  every  alternate  year,  or  as 
often  as  necessary,  as  whitewash  is  applied.  One 
instance  however  is  reported  in  which  the  cement 
has  not  crumbled  thus.  W.  C.  Edwards,  M.  P.,  of 
Rockland,  Ont,  built  a  stone  silo  in  1890.  Inside 
it  was  lined  with  bricks  and  the  bricks  were  in  turn 
lined  with  Portland  cement  of  a  good  quality.  In 
a  recent  letter  to  the  Author,  Mr.  Edwards  says: 
"We  have  not  applied  whitewash  or  cement  at  any 
time  to  our  silo  walls  since  the  silo  was  first  built. 
There  has  been  no  cracking  whatever  or  falling  off 
of  the  cement."  This  one  fact  coming  as  it  does, 
from  a  reliable  source,  would  raise  a  doubt  as  to 
whether  the  scaling  off  reported  in  the  experience 
of  many,  has  not  been  caused  by  using  an  inferior 
quality  of  cement,  or  by  not  properly  preparing  it 
for  use.  The  question  will  stand  further  investiga- 
tion. 

Water  lime  has  not  proved  serviceable  as  a  lin- 
ing for  silos.  It  has  been  found  that  the  acetic 
and  lactic  acids  in  the  silage  dissolve  out  the  lime 
particles,  thus  leaving  the  lining  a  layer  of  crumbling 
sand.  In  this  condition  it  very  readily  absorbs  silage 


284  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

juices,  and  is  so  easily  penetrated  by  the  tines  of 
the  fork  used  in  handling  the  silage,  that  much  of  it 
scales  off. 

Plaster  is  even  more  objectionable  than  water 
lime,  more  especially  when  applied  to  wooden  walls. 
It  disintegrates  even  more  readily  and  therefore  peels 
off  more  easily.  The  springing  of  the  wooden  walls 
cracks  the  plaster  when  it  occurs.  The  acids  wet 
the  lining  and  render  it  more  liable  to  injury  from 
frost,  and  when  they  penetrate  to  the  underlying 
lath  they  hasten  its  decay. 

Shingles  answer  fairly  well  for  lining,  but  they 
add  to  the  expense  of  the  same.  Where  shingles  are 
used,  matched  lumber  and  tarred  paper  must  also  be 
used,  hence  lining  with  shingles  would  seem  to  be 
superfluous,  and  there  is  more  or  less  danger  that 
they  will  be  loosened  or  torn  off  by  the  fork  in  remov- 
ing the  silage. 

Bricks  not  coated  with  cement  do  not  make  a 
good  lining  for  the  silo.  They  become  damp  and 
do  not  sufficiently  exclude  the  air,  but  they  would 
seem  to  be  much  less  objectionable  than  unplastered 
stone,  even  though  the  stones  were  smooth.  Bricks 
draw  dampness  too  easily  and  do  not  readily  exclude 
frost.  Much  of  the  silage  adjacent  to  such  walls 
would  spoil  and  in  time  the  acids  from  the  silage 
juices  would  cause  the  mortar  between  the  stones 
to  crumble  and  would  thus  make  the  walls  rough. 
Brick  or  stone  walls  should  be  kept  lined  with  a  high 
quality  of  cement. 

Metal  lining  for  silos  has  not  thus  far  proved 
a  success.  Sheet  iron  and  tin  have  been  tried.  Pro- 
fessor F.  H.  King,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 


FACTS  RELATING  TO  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     285 

station,  who  is  high  authority  on  such  questions,  has 
said  that  none  of  the  available  metals  are  in  them- 
selves proof  against  the  acids  of  the  silo  and  that  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  make  paint  adhere  to  them. 
In  the  meantime  therefore  expenditure  on  such  lin- 
ings would  be  unwise. 

Lining  with  tarred  paper  has  also  proved  unsatis- 
factory. It  cannot  be  kept  in  place  without  more 
or  less  of  furring,  and  this  interferes  with  the  settling 
of  the  silage.  The  paper  is  also  adversely  affected 
with  the  silage  juices,  and  this  in  turn  injuriously 
affects  the  wood  under  it. 

The  stave  silo  from  the  very  nature  of  its  con- 
struction does  not  call  for  any  kind  of  lining,  and 
this  is  in  itself  a  strong  argument  in  its  favor. 

Perservatives  for  Linings. — It  was  popular  at 
one  time  to  apply  some  preservative  to  the  inner 
lining  of  silos  in  the  hope  of  better  preserving  the 
wood  in  the  same.  The  more  common  of  these 
include  coal  tar  applied  alone  while  hot,  or  with 
resin  added,  or  dissolved  in  gasoline  and  boiled 
linseed  oil.  It  is  also  applied  with  black  oil  added 
equal  in  quantity  to  the  coal  tar.  It  has  not  yet 
been  demonstrated  that  any  of  these  applications 
have  materially  aided  in  promoting  the  end  sought. 
It  has  even  been  thought  that  in  some  instances  their 
application  hastened  decay.  The  fact  is  simply 
stated  without  waiting  to  give  the  reasons.  When 
these  so-called  preservatives  are  used  they  may  be 
applied  with  a  suitable  form  of  mop  or  whisk  broom. 

In  stone  silos  the  cement  lining  may,  when 
necessary,  be  made  to  last  longer  by  applying  a  white- 
wash of  cement  as  often  as  the  lining  shows  any 


286  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

indications  of  crumbling,  but  the  fact  would  no\v 
seem  to  be  assured  that  where  a  heavy  coat  of  cement 
of  good  quality  is  applied  to  the  inner  wall  of  a  stone 
silo,  it  will  last  many  years  without  any  renewal. 

Partitions  in  Silos. — It  may  be  regarded  as  an 
open  question  whether  partitions  should  be  used  at 
all  in  silos.  The  more  these  are  increased  the  more 
will  corners  be  multiplied,  the  greater  will  be  the 
resistance  offered  to  the  even  settling  of  the  silage. 
They  also  add  to  the  cost  of  the  silo  and  unless 
strongly  built  they  must  needs  be  braced  on  one  side 
while  the  silo  is  being  filled,  or  filling  must  take 
place  in  a  sense  simultaneously  on  both  sides  of  the 
partition.  In  round  silos  whatever  may  be  the  mode 
of  construction,  partitions  are  objectionable  since 
they  make  corners  where  otherwise  there  would  be 
none,  and  in  the  stave  silo  they  cannot  be  used.  It 
is  further  claimed  that  they  are  not  necessary,  since 
after  the  silage  has  settled  one  section  of  it  may  be 
fed  at  a  time  without  great  loss  providing  it  is  cut 
down  perpendicularly  with  a  sharp  hay  knife,  on  the 
other  hand  partitions  may  be  so  built  as  to  become 
an  important  source  of  strength  to  rectangular  silos 
as  is  shown  in  Chapter  IV.  It  has  been  argued  that 
it  would  be  better  to  build  a  second  silo  than  to  put 
a  partition  in  one,  but  this  view  is  certainly  not 
correct  except  in  the  case  of  round  silos,  since  one 
large  silo  can  be  built  with  a  partition  more  cheaply 
than  two  small  ones  without  one. 

When  partitions  are  used  they  may  be  con- 
structed variously,  i,  They  may  be  built  the  same 
as  the  walls  of  the  silo,  that  is  to  say,  with  studding 
lined  with  matched  boards  having  tarred  paper 


FACTS  RELATING  TO  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     287 

underneath.     The  studs  may  be  less  in  size  than  the 
wall  studs,  and  the  dead  air  space  should  be  left  open 
above  except  when  the  silo  is  being-  filled  to  lesson 
the  liability  to  decay.     Iron  rods  may  be  made  to 
run  through  the  studs  in  the  partition  with  some 
form  of  washer  running  up  and  down  the  wall  for 
some  distance  on  either  side  of  the  silo.     These  walls 
would  very  effectively  keep  the  walls  of  the  silo 
from   spreading.     2,    Partitions   may  be  made  by 
spiking  2x4  scantlings  on  top  of  one  another  from 
the  bottom  of  the  silo  upwards.     Iron  rods  may  also 
be  used  in  this  form  of  partition.     They  may  run 
along  in  grooves,  made  for  them  in  the  scantlings. 
3,    Partitions   may   be   made   in    narrow    silos   by 
using  planks  two  inches  thick.     These  are  held  in 
place  by  grooves  made  in  upright  timbers  which  are 
duly  fastened  to  the  wail  at  either  end.     If  these 
timbers   are   beveled   away   from   the   grooves   tht 
settling  of  the  silage  in  the  corners  will  be  facilitated. 
The  grooves  may  also  be  made  by  spiking  two  scant- 
Jings  three  cornered  in  shape  to  the  wall  at  a  suit- 
able distance  from  one  another.     They  can  be  ob- 
tained by  sawing  a  scantling  diagonally  from  end 
to   end.     When  partitions   are  made,   the  boards, 
scantlings  or  planks  used    in  making  them  should 
be  planed  on  the  side  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  silage,  to  facilitate  the  settling  of  the  same.  When 
the  silage  has  settled  and  is  then  fed  out  from  one 
side  of  the  partition,  the  pressure  against  the  latter 
from  the  silage  on  the  other  side  is  not  likely  to 
disturb  it  seriously.     It  is  only  when  the  silo  is  being 
filled  that  this  danger  must  be  carefully  guarded 
against. 


288  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Doors  in  Silos. — Whatever  the  nature  of  the 
silo  the  doors  have  some  features  in  common.  These 
include  the  following:  i,  They  should  usually 
he  placed  one  above  the  other  and  on  that  side  of 
the  silo  contiguous  to  the  passageway.  There 
may  be  instances  in  which  it  may  be  necessary  to 
have  doors  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  large  silo,  but 
these  will  be  infrequent.  2,  The  aim  should  be 
to  confine  the  number  of  the  doors  within  the  limits 
of  strict  necessity  because  of  the  difficulty  of  exclud- 
ing air  at  the  openings  thus  made.  3,  When  it 
can  be  made  so,  the  door  inside  should  have  a  beveled 
rim  fitting  into  a  corresponding  bevel  on  the  door 
when  the  door  is  in  place.  The  bevel  on  the  door 
should  be  from  the  inner  rim  outward.  When  a 
door  is  thus  beveled  the  greater  the  pressure  of  the 
silage  against  it  the  more  perfectly  will  the  air  be 
excluded.  Other  peculiarities  of  construction  will 
be  referred  to  when  discussing  the  various  forms  of 
silos  described  in  Chapter  IV. 

Roofing  Silos. — When  built  inside  of  a  barn  or 
stable  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  a  roof  for  silos. 
When  built  without,  and  more  especially  in  climates 
subject  to  frequent  and  also  to  prolonged  storms,  it 
will  probably  prove  more  satisfactory  in  the  end  to 
provide  some  form  of  the  same,  and  the  materials 
to  be  used  will  be  dependent  to  a  considerable  degree 
on  the  form  of  the  silo.  These  will  be  enlarged 
upon  when  the  details  of  construction  in  the  various 
forms  of  silos  are  discussed. 

But  it  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary  under  all 
conditions  to  provide  even  outdoor  silos  with  a  roof. 
The  opinion  prevails  that  not  to  do  so  would  result 


FACTS  RELATING  TO  SILO  CONSTRUCTION.     289 

in  much  inconvenience  and  loss  from  storms,  and 
that  in  cold  climates  much  loss  would  result  from  the 
freezing  of  the  silage.  Nevertheless,  in  western 
Ontario  and  probably  elsewhere,  many  stave  silos 
have  been  erected  which  have  not  been  provided 
with  a  roof.  These  are  between  the  forty- third 
and  forty-fifth  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and  some 
of  them  have  been  in  use  for  several  years.  The 
owners  claim  that  no  serious  inconvenience  or  loss 
has  occurred  from  the  causes  named.  The  heat 
generated  in  the  silage  seems  to  be  sufficient,  except 
in  very  extreme  weather,  to  protect  the  same  from 
injury  by  frost.  When  the  winter  climate  is  colder 
than  that  of  southern  Ontario,  there  would  probably 
be  inconvenience  and  loss  from  frost  in  roofless 
silos.  On  the  other  hand,  if,  in  the  wide  areas 
further  to  the  south,  it  should  be  found  that  such 
silos  meet  the  ends  sought,  it  may  not  be  necessary 
under  certain  conditions  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
building  a  roof. 

Decay  in  Silos. — Many  of  the  earlier  silos  were 
built  of  wood  and  lined  with  boards.  Those  built 
of  stone  were  also  in  some  instances  lined  with  wood. 
The  lining  in  many  of  them,  as  shown  by  Prof.  F. 
H.  King  in  Bulletin  No.  10  of  the  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment station,  showed  some  decay  at  the  end  of 
the  second  filling.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to 
say  that  the  lining  in  silos  will  decay  in  proportion. 
i,  As  sealed  dead  air  spaces  are  enclosed  between 
the  linings  of  the  walls ;  2,  as  stone  walls  are  faced 
inside  with  wood;  3,  as  inner  lining  boards  come 
against  sills,  beams  or  girts;  4,  as  spoiled  silage  is 
left  piled  against  the  lining  within  the  silo;  and  5, 
19 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

as  earth  is  banked  against  the  outer  lining.  Sealed 
dead  air  spaces  have  been  made  by  putting  strips 
of  furring  laid  on  tarred  paper  between  the  two 
thicknesses  of  boards  which  form  the  inner  lining  of 
the  silo,  and  by  lining  stone  silos  with  wood  inside  so 
as  to  have  a  space  between  the  boards  and  the 
wood.  These  can  be  avoided,  as  experience  has 
shown  that  a  single  lining  of  wood  with  tarred  paper 
under  is  usually  a  sufficient  protection  to  the  silage 
when  the  wooden  silo  has  also  an  outer  lining  of 
boards,  and  that  in  stone  silos  frost  can  usually  be 
warded  off  by  lining  with  bricks  inside  coated  with 
cement.  But  dead  air  spaces  must  needs  be  made 
in  the  walls  of  wooden  silos  with  studding  lined 
within  and  without,  and  also  when  stone  silos  are 
lined  without.  These  can  however  be  easily  pre- 
vented by  providing  ventilation. 

Such  ventilation  may  be  furnished  by  making 
the  sills  and  plates  a  little  narrower  than  the  studs. 
Openings  thus  made  for  the  escape  of  the  air  below 
and  above  should  of  course  be  next  to  the  outside 
sheeting.  Where  provision  is  not  thus  made  for 
ventilation,  it  may  be  made  by  boring  a  small  hole 
through  the  outer  lining  below  and  above  and  into 
the  space  between  each  pair  of  studs.  Openings 
thus  made  should  be  protected  by  some  kind  of  wire 
netting  to  prevent  depredation  from  rats  and  mice, 
Moreover,  if  no  ventilation  is  provided  in  a  silo 
underneath  the  roof  or  in  the  roof,  decay  will  be 
rapid  from  the  abundance  of  the  gases  which  rise 
up  out  of  the  fermenting  silage.  * 

Notwithstanding  the  rapid  decay  in  many  of 
the  earlier  silos,  it  is  easily  possible  to  build  wooden 


FACTS   RELATING  TO   SILO    CONSTRUCTION. 

silos  so  as  to  resist  decay  for  many  years.  The 
first  silo  built  by  Mr.  John  Gould,  Aurora  Station, 
O.,  has  not  been  repaired  since  it  was  constructed 
in  1884,  and  it  is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 
Since  the  stave  silo  has  no  dead  air  spaces,  it  is  ex- 
pected that  it  will  better  resist  decay  than  silos  that 
are  lined,  but  some  time  must  elapse  before  this 
will  be  certainly  known.  Nor  is  it  ordinarily 
necessary  to  create  dead  air  spaces  in  stone  silos- 
When  properly  built,  therefore,  they  should  last  for 
generations. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BUILDING   THE   SILO. 

But  three  kinds  of  silos  will  be  considered  in 
this  chapter,  viz.,  the  round  wooden  silo,  the  square 
or  rectangular  wooden  silo,  and  the  round  stone  silo, 
and,  for  the  reason  that  nearly  all,  if  not  indeed 
all,  the  silos  erected  in  the  future  will  pretty 
certainly  be  built  on  one  or  the  other  of  these 
plans.  The  Author  inclines  to  the  belief  that  nearly 
all  the  silos  built  in  the  immediate  future  will  be 
made  of  staves  held  in  place  by  hoops,  hence  it  will 
be  the  aim  to  give  the  necessary  information 
relating  to  the  building  of  these  with  some  degree 
of  minuteness. 

THE  ROUND  WOODEN  SILO. 

When  all  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  locat- 
ing the  round  silo,  that  form  of  silo  should  be  chosen. 
It  has  the  following  advantages: — i,  It  is  more 
cheaply  built  than  the  square  or  rectangular  silo 
since  it  requires  less  material  whether  built  of  staves 
or  otherwise.  Even  when  built  with  a  frame  there 
is  much  saving  in  studding  material,  because  of  the 
less  size  of  the  studs  used.  2,  The  circular  form 
is  much  more  favorable  to  the  even  settling  of  the 
silage,  ,and  therefore  more  favorable  to  its  perfect 
preservation.  This  arises,  in  part  at  least,  from  the 

292 


BUILDING  THE  SILO. 


entire  absence  of  corners  in  the  silo.  3,  The  tend- 
ency in  the  walls  to  spread  is  entirely  taken  away. 
In  the  stave  silo  the  hoops  when  kept  properly  in 
place  prevent  such  a  result,  and  in  round  silos  built 
with  a  frame  the  lining  within  and  without  has  a 
similar  effect. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  round  silos,  viz.,  that  kept 
in  place  by  hoops,  or  the  silo  built  with  a  frame,  the 
Author  most  unhesitatingly  prefers  the  former  and 
for  the  following  reasons:  —  i,  It  is  more  simple  in 
its  construction  and  can  be  built  more  economically 
than  the  other  form  of  round  silo.  2,  It  is  easier  to 
exclude  the  air,  because  of  the  opportunity  that  is 
always  present  to  tighten  the  hoops  when  necessary. 
3,  It  is  believed  that  decay  will  be  less  rapid  in  the 
stave  silo.  And  4,  Experience  has  already  demon- 
strated that  the  frost  will  penetrate  some  forms  of 
the  round  frame  silo  more  easily  than  a  silo  made  of 
staves.  The  advantages  of  the  stave  silo  therefore 
over  the  round  silo  are  so  clearly  drawn  that  it  would 
probably  be  safe  to  predict  that  the  former  though  of 
more  recent  introduction  is  likely  to  almost  entirely 
supersede  the  latter.  Since,  however,  the  round 
frame  silo  still  has  some  advocates,  it  may,  be  well 
to  give  in  brief  outline  the  essential  features  of  con- 
struction in  building  the  same. 

BUILDING  THE  ROUND  FRAME  SILO. 

The  round  frame  silo  consists  of  a  framework 
of  studding  resting  on  a  stone  foundation  and  lined 
within  and  without  with  boards  laid  over  tarred  or 
building  paper.  The  frame  rests  on  wooden  sills 


2 

53    S 

H 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  295 

which  of  course  must  be  circular  in  form.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  studs  of  greater  size  than  2x4 
inches,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  have  them  so  close  as 
in  the  rectangular  silo.  The  inside  should  be  lined 
with  two  thicknesses  of  boards  put  on  horizontally 
and  with  joints  broken  in  the  same.  The  boards 
should  be  about  six  inches  wide  and  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  should  have  tarred  or  building  paper 
between  the  two  layers,  or  underneath  the 
layer  adjacent  to  the  studs.  In  cold  climates  it 
would  probably  be  necessary  to  have  paper  on  the 
inside  of  the  studs  and  also  between  the  board  lin- 
ings. In  mild  climates  one  thickness  of  boards  laid 
on  tarred  paper  would  probably  suffice  for  the  inner 
lining.  The  outer  lining  may  consist  of  the  same 
material  put  on  as  drop  siding  and  with  tarred  paper 
underneath  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  climate.  Ventilation  must  be  provided.  (See 
Page  290. )  When  the  silo  is  built  inside  there  may 
be  some  conditions  in  which  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  put  on  any  outer  lining.  The  roof,  like  the  silo, 
will  be  circular,  and  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to 
have  a  roof  when  the  silo  is  built  outside. 

BUILDING  THE  STAVE  SILO. 

The  stave  silo  may  be  located  within  or  with- 
out although  more  commonly  it  is  placed  outside 
of  the  stable  or  barn.  Sometimes  it  is  located  in 
one  corner  of  the  outbuilding  partly  within  and 
partly  without  the  same.  It  may  of  course  be  made 
large  or  small  and  may  go  down  into  the  ground  or 
be  placed  on  the  surface.  In  building  it  there  is 


296 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 


T 


Fig.  30.    Section  of  Stave  Silo,  showing  Foundation  Floor  and  Splicing 
pi  Staves 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  297 

much  latitude  in  choice  of  material  for  staves,  in 
character  of  hoops  and  in  furnishing  of  the  roof. 

The  Foundation. — The  character  of  the  founda- 
tion for  the  stave  silo  should  be  determined  largely 
by  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  the  size  of  the  silo. 
Stave  silos  have  been  placed  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  without  any  excavations  whatever  other  than 
that  made  by  removing  a  few  inches  of  the  soft 
surface  soil.  But  in  such  instances  they  have  stood 
on  a  double  thickness  of  bricks  laid  first  in  mortar 
and  then  in  cement.  The  mortar  below  should  rest 
on  broken  stones  or  gravel.  This  plan  would  seem 
to  answer  v/here  the  soil  is  perfectly  dry  and  the 
silo  is  of  moderate  dimensions.  In  other  instances 
the  wall  is  sunk  several  inches,  that  is  to  say,  far 
enough  to  go  down  to  a  firm  subsoil.  This  plan 
will  probably  suffice  where  the  subsoil  is  dry  and 
winter  frosts  are  not  severe.  In  yet  other  instances 
the  wall  goes  down  a  little  lower  than  the  frost  is 
expected  to  penetrate.  The  wall  should  be  sunk 
thus  far  in  all  soils  that  are  liable  to  be  much  dis- 
turbed by  the  action  of  the  frost.  When  it  is  neces- 
sary to  sink  the  wall  several  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  it  will  usually  prove  economical  in 
the  end  to  excavate  inside  the  wall  to  the  same  depth 
to  which  the  wall  has  been  sunk.  But  when  thus 
excavated  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  wall  made  smooth  with  a  lining  of  cement, 
and  to  have  the  circle  made  by  the  inside  of  the 
staves  correspond  exactly  with  the  circle  of  the 
stonework  when  lined  as  indicated. 

The  stone  foundation  should  not  be  less  than 
two  feet  broad  and  should  come  up  several  inches 


298  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Flat  stones  are 
preferable  to  round  ones,  but  round  stones  will 
answer.  The  wall  may  be  flat  on  top,  but  many 
favor  making  a  shoulder  on  the  outside  as  shown  in 
figure  30.  The  staves  of  the  silo  should  stand  inside 
the  shoulder  and  close  against  it.  If,  when  the 
hoops  are  drawn  tightly,  the  staves  should  be  drawn 
away  from  the  shoulder,  the  space  should  be  filled 
by  pouring  thin  cement  into  it. 

When  building  the  foundation  wall,  some 
authorities  recommend  digging  a  trench  of  the  de- 
sired depth  and  filling  it  with  stones,  putting  the 
largest  stones  in  the  bottom.  Smaller  stones  are 
worked  into  the  intervening  spaces,  or  they  are  filled 
with  gravel.  In  either  case  they  are  pounded  down 
until  quite  firm.  When  the  wall  is  finished,  a  thin 
cement  is  made  and  poured  over  the  wall  so 
as  to  go  down  in  the  interstices.  When  it  has 
set,  stronger  cement  is  spread  over  the  surface 
with  a  trowel.  It  is  questionable,  however,  if 
cement  thus  applied  has  any  advantage  in  cheap- 
ness or  otherwise  over  the  good  old-fashioned 
mortar  for  holding  in  place  the  stones  of  a  foun- 
dation wall. 

When  a  shoulder  is  not  used  on  the  wall  the 
time  for  striking  a  circle  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  set- 
ting up  the  staves  is  opportune,  while  the  cement  or 
mortar  on  top  of  the  foundation  wall  is  still  soft. 
In  making  it  a  stake  may  be  driven  into  the  center 
of  the  floor  of  the  silo.  The  circle  on  the  wall  is 
then  marked  by  some  suitable  implement  attached 
to  a  cord  which  moves  around  on  the  central  pivot 
while  the  circle  is  being  marked. 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  2Q9 

The  Floor. — The  floor  may  be  of  earth  where 
the  soil  is  dry,  of  concrete  covered  with  cement  or 
even  without  such  a  covering,  or  of  bricks  laid  in 
cement.  (See  Page  282.)  Where  the  soil  is  dry 
earth  would  answer  well  enough  for  a  floor  were  it 
not  for  the  danger  arising  from  depredations  of  rats 
and  mice  especially  the  former.  Because  of  this 
danger,  the  propriety  of  making  a  floor  secure 
against  such  depredations  should  be  carefully  con,- 
sidered. 

The  Staves. — The  staves  should  be  of  some 
material  that  is  relatively  cheap  and  that  is  not  too 
difficult  to  obtain.  At  the  present  time,  white  pine 
is  probably  the  favorite  wood  in  the  northern  states, 
cypress  in  the  southern  states  and  the  Douglas  fir  in 
those  of  the  far  west.  But  other  kinds  of  pine  may 
be  used,  as  the  red,  the  yellow,  the  Norway  and  the 
southern,  and  also  other  soft  woods,  as  spruce  and 
hemlock.  It  is  important  that  the  material  shall 
be  sound  and  free  from  knots  that  are  liable  to  drop 
out,  and  seasoned  lumber  is  preferable  to  that  not 
seasoned. 

The  most  suitable  size  for  the  staves  will  be  at 
least  measurably  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  silo 
and  the  character  of  the  climate.  The  larger  the 
silo  the  broader  may  the  staves  be,  and  the  warmer 
the  climate  the  less  is  the  thickness  required.  Six 
inches  may  be  named  as  the  maximum  limit  for  the 
width  of  the  staves  and  four  inches  as  the  minimum. 
The  usual  thickness  is  two  inches,  but  in  mild  cli- 
mates one  and  one-half  inches  will  suffice.  Where 
the  material  can  be  obtained  at  reasonable  prices,  the 
staves  should  be  as  long  as  the  silo  is  high,  but  since 


3OO  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

such  lumber  is  frequently  relatively  costly  and  diffi- 
cult to  get,  it  may  frequently  be  necessary  to  pur- 
chase staves  of  two  different  lengths  and  to  splice 
them.  Where  practicable,  the  staves  should  be 
sized,  and  when  they  are  to  be  spliced  the  necessity 
for  thus  sizing  them  is  increased.  Where  this  can- 
not be  done,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  them  even 
inside  when  putting  them  in  place.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  they  shall  be  planed  on  the  inside  and 
also  at  the  sides,  but  it  will  be  advantageous  also 
to  have  them  planed  on  the  outside  if  they  are  to  be 
painted.  It  is  not  necessary  to  bevel  them  on  the 
sides  unless  the  diameter  of  the  silo  should  be  quite 
small.  It  is  thought  that  even  tighter  joints  are 
secured  in  the  absence  of  beveling,  nor  is  it  necessary 
to  tongue  and  groove  the  staves. 

Setting  Up  the  Staves. — In  setting  up  the 
staves,  various  methods  have  been  adopted.  That 
now  described  is  one  of  the  simplest : — Erect  a  scaf- 
fold by  setting  up  scantlings  at  the  corners  of  a  square 
that  will  exactly  enclose  the  silo.  Then  just  outside 
the  outer  circle  of  the  silo  and  at  the  points  where 
it  touches  each  side  of  the  square,  set  up  smaller 
scantlings.  Those  at  the  corners  may  be  4x4  inches 
and  those  intermediate  2x4  inches,  but  scantlings  of 
other  dimensions  may  be  used  so  long  as  they  are 
strong  enough  to  answer  the  end  sought.  Whether 
or  not  these  scantlings  splice  by  overlapping  they 
should  go  up  about  as  far  as  the  silo  is  to  be  high, 
and  they  should  be  set  exactly  plumb.  They  are 
held  in  position  by  boards  nailed  on  the  outside. 
Boards  one-half  inch  thick  are  then  nailed  on  the 
inside  of  the  four  intermediate  uprights.  When  in 


BUILDING  THE  SILO,  3OI 

position  they  form  a  crude  circle.  One  of  these 
circles  should  be  toward  the  bottom  of  the  silo,  and 
one  toward  the  top,  and  in  silos  that  are  high  there 
should  be  a  third  circle  similarly  formed  midway 
between  these.  A  stave  is  then  set  up  erect  and 
plumb.  It  is  held  in  position  by  driving  a  short  nail 
through  the  hoop  into  the  stave,  but  the  nail 
must  not  go  through  the  stave.  Another  stave 
is  similarly  put  up  and  fastened,  and  in  the  same  way 
all  the  staves  are  set  up.  As  soon  as  the  hoops  are 
put  on  they  draw  the  nails  in  the  temporary  hoops 
away  from  the  staves,  so  that  the  former  are  easily 
removed.  When  in  position  the  staves  may  be  flush 
with  the  inside  of  the  foundation,  may  stand  in  the 
center  of  the  same,  or  may  rest  against  a  shoulder 
of  the  foundation  as  may  be  desired.  In  Bulletin 
No.  167  of  the  Cornell  university  experiment  station 
it  is  recommended  that  in  setting  up  the  staves  of  a 
silo,  four  staves  shall  be  used  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  same  which  shall  be  several  inches  thicker  than 
the  other  staves  of  the  silo.  The  hoops  of  the  silo 
are  carried  through  these  uprights,  which  makes  it 
easily  possible  to  tighten  the  hoops  without  the  aid 
of  keys,  but  they  add  materially  to  the  labor  of  con- 
struction. It  would  seem  to  be  at  least  questionable 
if  such  uprights  will  come  into  common  use. 

Splicing  the  Staves. — When  it  is  necessary  to 
splice  the  staves  in  a  silo,  one  of  at  least  two  methods 
may  be  adopted.  First,  the  ends  may  be  cut  squarely 
and  with  precision  in  a  miter  box.  In  this  way  a 
reasonably  smooth  joint  is  made.  The  joints  where 
the  staves  thus  meet  are  broken,  that  is  to  say,  in 
one  instance  the  short  stave  is  put  at  the  top  of  the 


3O2  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

silo  and  in  the  next  at  the  bottom  of  the  same.  The 
short  staves  should  be  about  one-half  the  length  of 
the  longer  ones.  The  staves  thus  alternate  all  the 
way  around  the  circle.  The  alternate  joints  thus 
describe  two  circles  around  the  silo  as  shown  in  Fig. 
30.  This  form  of  joint  should  be  covered  with  flat 
hoops  of  band  iron  to  aid  in  excluding  the  air. 
When  the  staves  have  been  carefully  sized,  this  form 
of  splice  may  possibly  be  found  to  answer,  but  this 
does  not  yet  appear  to  have  been  conclusively  proved 
by  experience.  Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  the  splice 
adopted,  provision  must  be  made  for  having  it  come 
where  it  will  not  interfere  with  doors  and  where 
the  joints  may  be  thus  covered  writh  hoops  of  band 
iron. 

A  second  form  of  splice  is  made  similarly,  but 
with  the  following  addition:  Saw  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  into  the  end  of  each  stave  the 
wide  way.  A  piece  of  sheet  iron  of  the  same  width 
as  the  stave  is  placed  into  the  incision  thus  made  as 
the  ends  of  the  two  staves  are  being  brought  together 
(see  Fig.  31).  It  may  yet  be  found  that  sheet  iron 
thus  used  may  corrode  too  quickly. 

Hoops. — At  least  three  kinds  of  hoops  have 
been  used  in  stave  silos.  These  are  the  round,  the 
flat  and  the  woven  wire.  All  three  of  course  are 
iron.  Round  hoops  are  usually  from  five-eighths 
to  three-fourths  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  held  in 
place  by  lugs  or  castings,  as  shown  in  Fig  32. 
These  have  eyes  through  which  the  ends  of  the  rods 
come.  When  it  is  desired  to  tighten  the  hoops,  the 
burrs  are  tightened  with  a  wrench.  It  is  claimed  that 
round  hoops  are  more  easily  tightened  than  flat  ones, 


BUILDING  THE  SILO. 


303 


.    Splice  of  Stave  with  Iron  Tongue 


304 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 


but  they  also  cut  into  the  staves,  which  is  somewhat 
objectionable. 

Flat  hoops  are  usually  made  of  band  iron  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  varying  in  width  from, 
say,  two  and  one-half  to  three  and  one-half  inches 
with  the  size  of  the  silo.  These  two  are  held  in  place 
by  lugs  which  differ  in  some  respects  from  those  used 
to  hold  the  round  hoops  in  place,  but  the  principle 
involved  is  the  same.  For  a  silo  sixteen  feet  in 
diameter,  each  complete  hoop  which  encircles  the 


Fig.  3a.    Lugs  for  Hoops 

a,  Cast-iron  lugs  for  round  hoops. 
6,  Wedge  lug  for  flat  hoops. 

same  should  consist  of  two  separate  pieces,  and  for 
one  with  a  much  greater  diameter,  of  three  such 
pieces.  There  is  then  less  of  a  strain  on  the  threads 
while  the  burrs  are  being  tightened.  The  lugs  of 
the  various  hoops  should  also  be  distributed  rather 
than  rise  one  above  another  in  a  straight  line. 

Woven  wire  hoops  are  sometimes  used  when 
the  silos  are  small.  These  vary  in  width  with  the 
requirements  of  the  silo.  The  power  which  some 
kinds  of  woven  wire  have  to  contract  and  expand 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  305 

with  the  needs  of  the  silo  has  led  to  their  being  used 
by  some  silo  builders. 

The  distance  of  the  hoops  from  one  another 
should  be  regulated  almost  entirely  by  the  size  of 
the  silo.  The  greater  the  diameter  of  the  silo  and 
the  higher  it  is  the  closer  should  the  hoops  be  placed, 
especially  toward  its  base.  For  a  silo  sixteen  feet 
in  diameter  the  lower  edge  of  the  first  hoop  should 
be  within  about  six  inches  of  the  base  of  the  staves. 
The  space  between  the  lowest  hoop  and  the  one  next 
above  it  should  be  two  feet.  The  space  between 
each  additional  hoop  added,  and  the  one  next  below 
it  should  increase  six  inches.  But  four  feet  should 
be  the  limit  in  distance  between  any  two  adjacent 
hoops  in  such  a  silo.  On  the  approach  of  the  season 
of  filling  the  silo,  it  should  be  examined  and  the 
hoops  tightened  when  this  may  be  necessary,  but  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  possible  to  draw 
the  hoops  too  tight,  since  the  staves  will  swell  some- 
what after  the  silo  has  been  filled. 

The  Doors. — The  doors  should  be  in  line,  one 
above  another.  They  should  be  no  larger  than  will 
suffice  to  admit  of  the  easy  ingress  and  egress  of  the 
person  who  removes  the  silage.  Doors  eighteen 
by  twenty-four  inches  on  the  outside  will  usually  be 
amply  large.  The  bottom  of  the  first  or  lowest  door 
should  be  not  less  than  three  feet  from  the  bottom 
of  the  silo,  and  in  some  instances,  as  when  a  horse 
cart  is  used  for  drawing  the  silage,  it  ought  to  be 
higher  than  three  feet.  But  when  the  pit  of  the  silo 
is  sunk  down  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  the  bottom  door  should  be  placed  as  low  as 
possible.  The  distance  between  the  doors  should 
20 


306  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

not  be  less  than  five  feet,  and  the  space  for  these 
ought  to  be  so  calculated  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
placing  of  the  hoops,  and  vice  versa. 

The  doors  should  be  cut  out  after  the  staves 
have  been  put  in  place  and  drawn  tightly  together. 
They  should  be  cut  with  a  bevel  on  each  of  the  four 
sides  and  the  beveled  sides  of  the  door  should  be 
outward  when  it  is  in  place.  The  pressure  of  the 


a 

Fig  33.    Door  of  Stave  Silo 

a,  View  of  outside  of  door ;  b,  side  view  of  door. 

silage  when  settling  will  then  assist  in  the  exclusion 
of  the  air  at  the  doors  just  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  said  pressure  exists.  To  aid  further 
in  such  exclusion  of  air,  a  strip  of  tarred  paper 
should  be  tacked  on  each  of  the  beveled  edges  of 
the  door.  Before  sawing  out  the  door,  two  cleats 
should  be  bolted  across  the  staves  on  the  outside. 
These  are  shown  in  the  door  as  represented  in  Fig. 
33.  The  end  of  the  bolt  which  receives  the  burr 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  307 

should  be  outward,  and  the  heads  of  the  same  coun- 
tersunk on  the  inside.  The  doors  should  be  carefully 
numbered  on  the  outside  so  that  each  will  be  used 


Fig  34.    View  of  Stave  Silo 

With  shute,  ladder  and  hand-cart 

only  in  its  proper  place,  or  they  may  be  so  fastened 
with  chains  to  the  outer  wall  as  to  hang  suspended 
when  for  the  time  being  they  are  not  in  use. 

The  Shute. — In  a  large  majority  of  instances 


308  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO, 

it  will  be  advantageous  to  make  a  shute  down  which 
the  silage  falls  when  it  is  thrown  out  at  any  of  the 
doors.  The  shute  is  simply  a  box  with  three  sides, 
extending  upward  from  below,  the  lower  door  of 
the  silo  and  covering  the  doors.  The  proper  size 
will  be  about  two  feet  square.  A  ladder  should 
extend  upward  on  one  side  of  the  shute  and  inside 
of  it  on  which  the  person  climbs  when  going  into  or 
coming  out  of  the  silo.  Usually  a  floor  is  put  into 
the  shute  and  from  this  the  silage  slides  outward 
into  a  cart  placed  under  the  same  to  receive  it. 
When  the  silo  stands  outside  the  stable  and  near  to 
the  same,  the  shute  should  come  down  into  the 
passageway,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34.  This  passage- 
way between  the  silo  and  the  building  need  not  be 
more  than  seven  feet  high  inside.  It  should  have 
windows  in  it  to  admit  ample  light. 

The  Roof. — In  climates  not  too  cold  nor  too 
rainy,  stave  silos  may  be  left  without  a  roof.  (See 
Page  288.)  For  silos  that  are  located  quite  near 
to  the  stable,  a  roof  may  be  made  as  shown  in  Bulle- 
tin No.  167  of  the  Cornell  university  experiment 
station,  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  made  as  follows: 
Four  scantlings  suitably  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
silo  may  be  bolted  to  the  staves  of  the  same.  They 
should  extend  downward  some  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  silo  and  upward  some  distance  above  it. 
The  pair  nearest  to  the  stable  should  be  higher  than 
the  outer  pair.  Other  scantlings  to  serve  as  plates 
or  supports  to  the  roof  are  then  spiked  across  the 
top  of  each  pair  of  uprights.  A  third  support  in 
the  same  line  of  ascent  is  then  fastened  to  the  side 
of  the  stable.  Over  these  supports  a  roof  of  boards 


Fig  35.    Exterior  View  of  Stave  Silo 

With  roof  and  lugs  properly  distributed. 


3io 


SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 


is  constructed,  the  cracks  of  which  are  battened 
This  roof  is  intended  simply  to  ward  off  storms  and 
would  seem  to  be  too  costly  for  the  benefits  accruing. 
When  a  roof  is  wanted,  it  would  seem  wiser  to 
build  a  better  one,  as  for  instance,  on  the  plan  shown 

in  Fig  35 ;  or  a  conical  roof 
may  be  constructed  as  shown 
in  Fig  29.  The  style  of  roof 
last  mentioned,  however,  re- 
quires some  considerable  de- 
gree of  skill  to  construct  it 
properly. 

THE  RECTANGULAR  SILO. 

The  rectangular  and  the 
square  silo  fits  better  into 
the  space  obtainable  in  an 
oblong  building  than  any 
other  form  of  silo  that  can  be 
built.  This  fact  will  be  at 
once  evident  if  it  is  remem- 
bered that  when  thus  located 
there  is  absolutely  no  other 
waste  of  space  than  that  oc- 
cupied by  the  walls  of  the  silo.  And  since  one  and 
sometimes  two  walls  of  the  building  may  be  utilized 
when  constructing  such  silos,  they  will  continue  to  be 
erected,  notwithstanding  the  objections  arising  from 
the  presence  of  corners  and  from  the  liability  to 
spread  because  of  the  pressure  of  the  silage. 

The  Foundation. — Much  of  what  has  been  said 
with  reference  to  the  foundation  of  the  stave  silo 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  3! I 

will  apply  equally  to  the  foundation  of  the  rectan- 
gular or  the  square  silo.  Usually  the  walls  should 
not  be  less  than  two  feet  thick,  and  as  with  the  stave 
silo  they  may  be  sunk  into  the  ground  to  the  depth 
of  three  to  four  feet  and  the  space  inside  excavated 
as  a  receptacle  for  silage.  (See  Page  297.)  The 
wall  should  extend  far  enough  upward  to  prevent 
the  sills  from  coming  anywhere  in  contact  with 
the  earth. 

The  Sills. — Commonly  the  sills  consist  of  planks 
of  the  same  material  and  of  the  same  size  as  the  studs, 
that  is  to  say,  of  planks  2x10  inches.  They  are  laid 
on  the  foundation  walls  and  framed  so  as  to  overlap 
one  another  at  the  corners,  and  are  bolted  down  to 
the  wall  by  means  of  upright  iron  rods  or  bolts  laid 
in  the  wall  while  the  foundation  was  being  built,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36.  These  rods  are  of  iron  and  they 
should  rise  up  at  the  corners  and  at  intervals  between 
the  corners  which  vary  with  the  size  of  the  silo. 
The  favorite  distance  varies  from,  say,  three  to  five 
or  six  feet.  If  the  space  inside  the  foundation  walls 
is  to  be  used  as  a  receptacle  for  silage,  the  in- 
side of  the  sills  should  be  so  nearly  flush  with 
the  inside  of  the  wall  that  when  both  are  lined 
the  inner  wall  will  be  quite  plumb  where  the 
cement  lining  of  the  foundation  and  the  wood 
lining  of  the  walls  meet.  But  when  the  floor 
of  the  silo  is  about  level  with  the  top  of  the  wall,  the 
sills  may  occupy  the  central  part  of  the  top  of  the 
wall  rather  than  the  space  only  toward  the  inner  side 
of  the  same. 

The  Floor. — The  same  general  principles  are 
to  hz  followed  in  making  the  floor  of  the  rectangular 


312  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

silo  as  in  making  the  floor  of  the  stave  silo.  (See 
Pages  282  and  299.) 

The  Studs. — The  size  of  the  studding  used  in 
the  framework  of  the  walls  varies  with  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  silo.  The  same  is  true  of  the  spacing 
and  bridging  of  the  studs.  The  larger  the  silo,  and 
more  especially  the  greater  its  hight,  the  larger 
should  be  the  studs  where  no  girts  are  used  and  the 
more  closely  should  they  be  spaced  and  bridged.  In 
silos  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  feet  high  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  use  studs  2x10  inches  or 
3x8  inches,  to  place  them  not  more  than  twelve  to 
twenty- four  inches  apart  and  to  bridge  between  each 
pair  of  studs  in  not  less  than  three  places. 

By  bridging  is  meant  the  nailing  of  short  pieces 
of  narrow  boards  or  miniature  scantlings  between 
the  studs.  They  are  cut  at  both  ends  with  a  proper 
bevel  so  that  they  may  be  easily  nailed  to  the  studs. 
Even  when  thus  constructed,  walls  have  been  known 
to  spread  somewhat.  But  where  partitions  are  used, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  use  studs  so  heavy,  nor  to  place 
them  so  close,  since  the  iron  rods  which  run  through 
the  partitions  effectually  aid  in  preventing  spreading. 
The  studs  are  usually  toe-nailed  to  the  sills  below, 
but  in  some  instances  they  are  mortised  into  the 
same.  When  toe-nailed,  several  large  spikes  are 
driven  into  each.  Plates  of  the  same  material  should 
be  laid  on  top  of  the  studs  and  spiked  to  them  when 
the  size  of  the  material  will  admit  of  this,  but  when 
it  is  of  thicker  size  than  the  studs,  the  latter  should 
be  mortised  into  the  plates.  The  method  more  com- 
monly adopted  is  to  simply  fasten  the  studs  by 
spiking  them  both  above  and  below.  The  plates 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  313 

should  be  a  little  narrower  than  the  studs  when  an 
outer  lining  is  used  to  furnish  ventilation  to  the  air 
space  between  the  inner  and  outer  linings.  The 
plates,  like  the  sills,  are  put  on  the  four  sides  of  the 
silo  and  they  are  also  spliced  at  the  corners. 

In  building  silos  in  the  past,  the  aim  has  been 
to  get  studs  as  long  as  the  intended  hight  of  the  silo, 
but  since  lumber  of  such  great  lengths  must  con- 
tinually become  scarcer  and  higher  in  price,  of 
necessity,  more  attention  will  have  to  be  given  to  the 
use  of  girts  in  the  future.  If  girts  were  made  to 
extend  around  the  middle  of  the  silo,  the  studs  would 
only  require  to  be  one-half  the  usual  length.  If 
mortised  into  the  girts,  and  moreover,  if  one  or  more 
partitions  were  used,  and  if  one  rod  in  each  partition 
were  also  run  through  the  girts  on  the  sides  of  the 
silo,  spreading  would  be  most  effectively  prevented. 
The  girts,  like  the  plates,  should  be  a  little  narrower 
than  the  studs  in  silos  with  an  outer  lining,  and  for 
a  similar  reason. 

The  Inner  Lining. — The  amount  of  lining 
required  will  depend  almost  entirely  on  the  character 
of  the  climate.  Ordinarily,  when  rectangular  silos 
are  built  inside,  one  thickness  of  boards  laid  over 
tarred  paper  will  suffice.  When  but  one  layer  of 
boards  is  used,  the  lumber  should  be  jointed  and  not 
more  than  one  inch  thick.  Boards  not  more  than 
six  to  eight  inches  wide  will  probably  be  better  than 
those  wider,  on  the  principle  that  narrow  boards  for 
flooring  are  preferable  to  those  wider.  The  tarred 
paper  is  tacked  onto  the  studs.  The  strips  of  the 
same  are  put  on  perpendicularly  and  are  made  to 
overlap  where  they  meet  on  the  studs,  so  that  both 


314  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

may  be  tacked  to  the  stud  nearest  to  the  place  of 
the  overlapping. 

When  putting  on  the  lining  it  is  important  that 
the  boards  shall  be  so  put  on  as  to  aid  in  binding  the 
corners  of  the  silo.  This  may  be  done  by  having 
each  alternate  board  extend  to  the  outside  of  the 
studding  of  the  walls  which  stand  at  right  angles 
with  the  board.  Both  ends  of  each  board  thus 
extended  can  then  be  nailed  to  a  stud  properly 
adjusted  in  each  of  the  two  walls  just  referred  to. 
This  can  only  be  done,  however,  when  the  boards 
used  in  lining  are  of  an  equal  width. 

When  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  put  on  two 
thicknesses  of  boards,  that  first  put  on  should  be 
nailed  directly  to  the  studs  and  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion. These  boards  need  not  be  planed,  but  the  end 
sought  will  be  better  secured  if  they  are  jointed.  A 
lining  of  tarred  paper  is  then  put  on  over  the  boards. 
Over  the  tarred  paper  a  second  lining  of  jointed 
boards  is  nailed.  Inch  boards  are  commonly  used, 
but  those  somewhat  less  in  thickness  will  suffice. 
The  boards  of  the  second  lining  should  break  joints 
with  those  of  the  first,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36. 

The  Outer  Lining. — When  the  silo  is  built 
within  another  building,  no  outer  lining  is  usually 
necessary.  When  one  or  two  sides  of  the  building 
also  form  the  outer  walls  of  the  silo,  the  siding  that 
has  been  used  upon  either  will  usually  answer  also 
for  the  outer  lining  of  the  silo,  and  without  any 
change.  When  the  silo  extends  upward  through 
the  roof  of  a  building,  the  outer  lining  of  the  part 
which  thus  projects  may  be  similar  to  the  siding  of 
the  building.  When  the  silo  is  built  without,  it  may 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  315 

be  necessary  in  very  cold  climates  to  have  two  thick- 
nesses of  boards  for  the  outer  lining,  with  tarred 
paper  between,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  But  usually  a 
covering  of  drop  siding,  such  as  is  ordinarily  used, 
will  suffice.  In  mild  climates  an  outer  covering  may 
not  be  necessary,  except  for  the  purpose  of  hiding 
the  uncouth  appearance  of  an  uncovered  frame. 

Partitions. — When  partitions  are  used  in  a  silo 
with  a  width  of  not  more  than  sixteen  feet,  they  may 
ordinarily  consist  'of  planks  two  inches  thick  and 
held  in  place  at  either  end  by  a  groove  formed  along 
the  wall  to  receive  them.  (See  Page  286.)  When 
filling  a  silo  with  a  partition  of  such  material,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  Mil  on  both  sides  of  the  partition  or 
to  brace  one  side  while  the  other  is  being  filled.  In 
a  silo  twenty-four  feet  in  hight,  three  iron  rods  of 
about  three-fourths  inch  iron  should  run  through 
the  partition  at  suitable  distances  from  one  another 
and  in  grooves  made  for  them  between  the  planks. 
(  See  Page  287. )  The  rods  should  be  threaded  at  the 
ends  and  should  have  under  the  burrs  washers  of 
metal  of  sufficient  size  to  prevent  the  burrs  from 
drawing  into  the  wood.  When  thus  protected,  the 
walls  of  the  rectangular  silo  cannot  spread. 

The  Corners. — In  each  inside  corner  a  scantling 
should  be  placed  on  end  and  spiked  to  the  walls  so 
as  to  present  a  beveled  edge  on  the  inside.  A  scant- 
ling 2x4  inches  or  4x6  inches  ripped  diagonally 
through  the  center,  that  is  to  say,  from  two  opposite 
corners,  will  furnish  the  requisite  material  for  cor- 
ners. The  beveled  edge  should  of  course  be  planed. 

The  Doors. — The  doors,  as  in  the  stave  silo, 
should  be  placed  one  above  another.  (See  Page  305.) 


316  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

They  may  also  be  of  the  same  size  as  those  described 
in  the  stave  silo,  where  the  distance  between  the  studs 
will  admit  of  making  them  thus,  and  they  may  be 
similarly  distanced.  They  may  likewise  be  beveled 
on  the  edges  and  held  together  by  bars  bolted  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  wall  before  the  doors  are  cut  out. 
A  simpler  form  of  door  has  been  made  by  cutting 
out  an  opening  of  sufficient  size  between  two  studs 
and  holding  together  the  part  of  the  lining  thus  cut 
out  by  bars  nailed  or  bolted  to  them  on  the  outside. 
When  in  place  they  rest  against  strips  nailed  to  the 
two  sides  of  the  two  studs  adjacent  to  the  opening 
for  the  door.  When  the  doors  are  in  place  they  are 
covered  with  tarred  paper  to  aid  in  excluding  the 
air.  Where  an  outer  lining  has  been  put  on,  open- 
ings to  correspond  with  those  of  the  inner  lining  may 
be  made  on  the  same  general  plan. 

The  Roof. — It  is  only  when  the  rectangular  silo 
extends  up  through  the  roof  of  the  outbuilding,  or 
when  the  silo  is  built  outside  that  it  requires  to  be 
roofed.  The  plates  which  are  spiked  onto  the  top 
of  the  studs,  or  which  have  the  latter  mortised  into 
them,  should  be  less  wide  than  the  studs  that  venti- 
lation may  be  provided  for  the  air  space  between  the 
inner  and  outer  linings  of  the  wall.  '  Plates  are  fre- 
quently used  no  thicker  than  the  studs,  but  in  silos 
possessed  of  much  width  it  would  be  no  more  than 
prudent  to  use  plates  somewhat  thicker.  The  size 
of  the  rafters  used  should  be  regulated  by  the  size 
of  the  silo.  When  in  position  they  are  notched 
where  they  rest  on  the  plates  and  are  spiked  and  toe- 
nailed  to  the  same.  If  narrow  boards  or  2x4  scant- 
lings are  nailed  or  spiked  to  opposite  rafters  and  not 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  317 

far  up  from  the  plates,  they  assist  materially  in  pre- 
venting the  silo  from  spreading.  But  there  is  no 
necessity  for  nailing  them  thus  to  each  pair  of  rafters. 
The  covering  of  the  roof  may  consist  of  boards  and 
shingles,  or  indeed,  of  any  of  the  materials  used  in 
covering  roofs  that  may  be  desired.  In  the  gable 
should  be  a  hinged  door  to  admit  green  food  when 
the  silo  is  being  filled.  It  should  be  not  less  than 
two  and  one-half  feet  wide  to  admit  carriers  such 
as  are  commonly  used  when  silos  are  being  filled; 
but  sometimes  the  gable  end  is  left  open.  There 
should  also  be  at  least  one  cupola  or  ventilator  on  the 
ridge  of  the  roof  to  furnish  egress  to  the  gases  which 
are  generated  by  the  fermentation  of  the  silage.  If 
the  roof  of  a  silo  is  closed  tightly,  premature  decay 
in  the  roof  would  result. 

BUILDING    STONE    SILOS. 

It  is  almost  certain  that  the  stone  silo  will  grow 
in  favor  with  the  passing  of  the  years  because  of  its 
greater  relative  duration.  This  will  at  least  prove 
true  in  localities  abundantly  supplied  with  stone. 
The  greater  relative  first  cost  of  constructing  stone 
silos  is  probably  more  than  anything  else  responsible 
for  the  infrequency  with  which  such  silos  are  found. 
Future  experience,  however,  is  likely  to  show  that 
when  the  greater  duration  of  stone  silos  is  taken  into 
account,  they  will  prove  the  cheapest  by  far  in  the 
end.  The  objections  have  been  brought  against 
them  that  they  are  damp,  and  that  frost  easily  pene- 
trates them,  and  both  objections  are  true  in  the 
absence  of  certain  precautions  when  building  them. 


318  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Excessive  dampness  may  be  prevented  by  making 
an  air  space  in  the  wall  while  it  is  being  built,  or  by 
lining  the  wall  on  the  inside  with  one  thickness  of 
brick  and  by  giving  due  attention  to  ventilation. 

The  danger  from  frost  will  not  be  present 
except  in  cold  climates.  The  air  space  in  the  wall, 
or  the  inner  brick  lining  above  referred  to  will  also 
help  materially  to  ward  off  frost.  When  neither  is 
present,  protection  may  be  afforded  by  covering  the 
outer  wall  with  a  lining  of  boards  nailed  to  studding 
so  as  to  form  an  air  space  between  the  lining  and 
the  wall.  The  aim  should  be,  however,  to  construct 
the  wall  so  that  such  lining  on  the  outside  would  not 
be  necessary.  A  stone  silo  properly  built  should  last 
indefinitely  without  any  form  of  renewal  except  in 
the  inner  lining  and  in  the  covering  over  the  frame- 
work of  the  roof. 

Forms  of  Construction. — Stone  silos  may  be 
built  square,  rectangular  or  round  and  they  will 
usually  be  located  outside,  but  may  also  be  placed 
inside  the  barn  or  stable.  The  aim  should  be  wher- 
ever practicable  to  build  them  round.  When  this 
cannot  be  done,  the  corners  inside  should  be  rounded 
more  or  less  to  facilitate  the  settling  of  the  silage. 

The  Foundation. — The  foundation  of  the  stone 
silo  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  foundation 
for  any  structure  in  which  permanency  is  desired. 
Every  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  it  from  the 
action  of  frost  when  built  in  a  cold  climate,  lest  crack- 
ing of  the  walls  should  follow.  As  the  structure  is 
heavy,  the  foundation  should  go  down  to  solid  earth. 
If  ,the  drainage  below  is  not  complete  it  should  be 
made  so  by  laying  tiles  under  the  wall  or  adjacent 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  319 

to  and  a  little  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  same. 
The  ground  should  also  slope  away  somewhat  from 
the  outside  of  the  wall. 

The  Floor. — The  floor  in  the  stone  silo  may  be 
similar  in  construction  to  that  in  the  stave  silo.  (See 
Page  282  and  also  Page  299.) 

The  Walls. — The  thickness  of  the  walls  should 
be  determined  by  the  size  of  the  silo.  The  larger 
the  silo  the  greater  the  pressure,  and  the  greater  the 
pressure  the  thicker  should  be  the  wall.  It  is  at  least 
questionable  if  the  wall  of  any  stone  silo  should  be 
less  than  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  thickness,  and 
the  necessity  will  probably  seldom  arise  for  making 
the  wall  more  than  twenty-four  inches  thick. 
Whether  the  wall  with  an  air  space  or  the  solid  wall 
with  a  brick  lining  inside  will  be  the  more  efficacious 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  determined  as  yet.  In 
southern  climates  where  the  danger  from  frost  does 
not  exist,  the  solid  wall  without  an  air  space  or  brick 
lining  should  answer  every  purpose. 

The  Inner  Lining. — The  walls  inside  should  be 
coated  with  cement  of  an  excellent  quality.  If  laid 
on  a  brick  lining  it  will  last  for  many  years  where 
frost  does  not  penetrate  the  wall.  In  a  stone  silo  built 
by  W.  C.  Edwards,  M.  P.,  of  Rockland,  Ont.,  the 
cement  lining  has  been  in  place  for  ten  years  and 
is  still  in  faultless  condition.  The  stone  wall  is  two 
feet  thick.  It  is  faced  inside  with  one  tier  of  bricks 
laid  with  the  side  to  the  wall,  and  the  cement  lining 
is  plastered  on  the  bricks.  This  fact  is  in  conflict 
with  statements  made,  which  claim  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  apply  cement  of  the  consistency  of  whitewash 
every  two  or  three  years  to  the  inner  lining  of  stone 


32O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

silos.  Whether  the  cement  would  last  as  well  on 
properly  built  stone  silos  without  the  brick  facing 
insides  does  not  appear  to  have  been  determined,  but 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  why  it 
should  not. 

The  Outer  Lining. — Where  stone  silos  are  prop- 
erly constructed,  there  should  be  no  necessity  for 
an  outer  lining  of  wood  in  any  climate  where  corn 
can  be  successfully  grown  for  the  silo.  The  stone 
silo  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph  is  located 
between  the  forty-fifth  and  forty-sixth  parallels  of 
north  latitude,  and  in  a  climate  that  is  stern  and  rig- 
orous. The  larger  portion  of  the  wall,  which  is 
twenty-six  feet  high,  is  unprotected,  and  yet  Mr. 
Edwards  testifies  that  no  trouble  whatever  has  arisen 
from  the  action  of  frost. 

Where  it  is  deemed  necessary,  however,  to  pro- 
tect a  stone  silo  by  lining  it  outside,  the  lining  can 
best  be  nailed  to  upright  studs  laid  into  the  outer 
wall  while  it  is  being  built,  but  of  course  studding 
may  be  used  that  is  not  thus  laid  into  the  wall.  The 
studs  or  strips  thus  placed  do  not  require  to  be  any 
nearer  than  will  suffice  to  properly  sustain  the  siding. 
Drop  siding  will  be  suitable. 

The  Roof. — The  roof  of  the  stone  silo  when 
built  outside  may  be  constructed  on  the  same  plan 
as  that  of  any  other  silo.  But  because  of  the  greater 
duration  of  stone  silos,  it  will  probably  pay  to  take 
special  pains  in  the  selection  and  use  of  material  last- 
ing in  character,  as,  for  instance,  metal  roofing. 
And  since  the  stave  silo  is  frequently  built  and  used 
from  year  to  year  without  any  form  of  roof  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  good  reason  for  not  similarly 


BUILDING  THE  SILO.  321 

using  the  stone  silo  where  the  climatic  conditions 
are  suitable. 

The  Doors. — Provision  ought  to  be  made  for 
the  door  spaces  when  the  wall  is  being  built.  These 
should  be  on  one  side  of  the  silo  and  above  one 
another,  as  in  the  stave  silo.  The  size  of  the  door 
spaces  should  be  about  the  same,  that  is  to  say,  about 
18x24  inches,  or  perhaps  a  little  larger  than  that, 
because  of  the  greater  thickness  of  the  stone  wall. 
The  material  for  the  doors  within  and  without  will 
of  course  be  wood,  with  tarred  paper  on  the  surface 
next  the  air  space  and  also  on  the  beveled  edges. 
These  beveled  edges  will  fit  into  a  corresponding 
bevel  on  the  four  edges  of  the  inner  and  also  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  wall,  which  border  on  the  open 
space  left  for  the  doors.  But  the  bevel  on  the  outer 
side  is  much  less  important  than  that  on  the  inner 
side,  and  may  be  dispensed  with  altogether.  The 
doors  on  both  sides  may  swing  on  hinges  of  suitable 
construction,  or  they  may  be  simply  put  in  place 
while  the  silo  is  being  filled. 

In  deep  and  wide  stone  silos  it  may  be  necessary 
to  strengthen  the  walls,  to  some  extent,  with  iron 
bands  encircling  them,  or  with  iron  rods  running  up 
and  down,  as,  for  instance,  near  the  doors. 
21 


CHAPTER  V. 

CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO. 

It  would  seem  to  be  possible  to  preserve  in  the 
silo  with  more  or  less  of  success  any  of  the  crops 
that  are  ordinarily  grown  in  this  country  as  food  for 
live  stock.  Nevertheless,  the  exact  methods  to  be 
followed  in  storing  many  of  these  crops  so  as  to 
properly  preserve  them  have  not  yet  been  fully  deter- 
mined. The  relative  suitability  of  crops  for  being 
made  into  silage  is  determined  by  various  considera- 
tions. Chief  among  these  is  the  ease  with  which 
they  may  be  preserved  in  the  silo.  But  prominent 
among  the  same  are  the  following:  i,  The  readi- 
ness with  which  they  may  be  grown  in  ample  supply. 
2,  The  ease  with  which  they  may  be  put  into  the  silo 
and  taken  out  of  the  same.  3,  The  facility  with 
which  they  may  be  preserved  by  other  methods. 
Corn  for  instance  is  more  easily  preserved  in  the  silo 
than  winter  rye  and  it  also  produces  more  food  per 
acre.  On  these  grounds  therefore  it  is  so  far  the 
more  suitable  food  of  the  two  for  being  made  into 
silage.  Clover  is  more  easily  handled  than  rape, 
hence  it  is  so  far  a  more  suitable  silo  crop.  Sorghum 
is  more  difficult  to  cure  in  the  dry  form  than  peas 
and  oats,  hence  it  is  more  suitable  than  the  latter  for 
siloing. 

The  relative  suitability  of  the  following  plants 
for  being  made  into  silage  will  now  be  considered, 

322 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  323 

viz. :  Corn,  sorghum,  non-saccharine  sorghum,  legu- 
minous plants  other  than  clover,  plants  of  the  clover 
family,  millets,  the  common  cereals,  field  roots,  rape 
and  sunflowers.  With  the  exception  of  sunflowers, 
the  Author  believes  the  above  have  been  named  in 
about  the  order  of  relative  suitability,  giving  corn 
the  first  place. 

Corn. — Corn  is  pre-eminently  the  soiling  plant 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  would  prob- 
ably be  correct  to  say  that  more  corn  is  made  into 
silage  in  these  respective  countries  than  all  other 
crops  combined.  The  high  adaptation  of  this  plant 
for  the  silo  is  based  on  such  considerations  as  its  wide 
distribution,  the  certainty  with  which  it  may  be 
grown,  the  ease  with  which  it  is  handled  and  cured, 
the  large  amount  of  food  which  it  produces  and  the 
high  character  of  the  same,  the  aid  which  it  renders 
in  preserving  other  crops  put  into  the  silo  along  with 
it,  and  the  difficulty  frequently  experienced  in  curing 
corn  out  of  the  silo.  It  is  distributed  so  widely  that 
it  may  be  grown  for  silage  in  nearly  every  state  in 
the  Union  and  in  nearly  every  province  of  Canada. 
Even  where  it  does  not  become  sufficiently  advanced 
to  produce  soft  grain  it  may  be  cured  in  the  silo.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  certain  crops  of  the  farm,  and 
when  grown  for  silage,  it  is  even  more  certain  than 
when  grown  mainly  for  the  grain  product,  since  it 
may  be  cured  in  the  silo  before  it  is  fully  matured. 

All  things  considered,  no  other  crop  is  more 
easily  handled  in  the  green  form,  and  none  have  been 
cured  in  the  silo  with  so  much  certainty,  so  small  a 
number  of  failures  and  so  little  loss.  Likewise  con- 
sidered, no  other  crop  produces  so  large  an  amount 


(334) 


Pig.  37.    Elephant  Fodder  Corn 

Minnesota  University  Experiment  Farm. 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  325 

of  food  per  acre  that  is  so  highly  palatable  and 
nutritious  and  over  so  wide  an  area.  Various  other 
crops,  as  clover,  soy  beans  and  cowpeas  may  be  bet- 
ter preserved  along  with  corn,  as  for  instance,  in 
alternate  layers,  than  when  put  into  the  silo  alone. 
Since  in  some  sections  corn  is  not  easily  preserved 
ir.  the  shock,  the  stack  or  the  barn,  the  percentage  of 
loss  in  those  areas  is  reduced  when  corn  is  cured  in 
the  silo. 

So  completely  adapted  is  corn  to  the  require- 
ments of  silage  making  that  where  it  can  be  grown 
successfully  from  year  to  year  it  is  questionable  as 
to  whether  very  much  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  siloing  of  other  crops.  Were  it  not  that  it  is 
rather  low  in  protein,  the  propriety  of  growing  other 
crops  to  blend  with  it  or  to  feed  along  with  the 
silage  made  from  it  might  well  be  questioned.  Since 
the  protein  required  to  balance  the  ration  can  usually 
be  procured  more  easily  in  the  cured  form,  it  is  com- 
monly more  advantageous  thus  to  procure  it 
Probably  the  soy  bean,  the  cowpea  and  the  sunflower, 
plants  that  are  rich  in  protein,  furnish  exceptions. 

Sorghum. — The  suitability  of  sorghum  for  the 
silo  is,  in  some  respects  at  least,  not  very  far  different 
from*  that  of  corn,  but  since  sorghum  has  not  hereto- 
fore been  grown  to  anything  like  the  same  extent  as 
corn  in  those  areas  where  the  silo  is  most  needed,  its 
merits  as  silage  food  are  but  little  known,  and  since 
its  keeping  qualities  outside  of  the  silo  are  in  several 
respects  superior  to  those  of  corn,  the  same  necessity 
has  not  been  felt  for  curing  it  in  the  form  of  silage. 
And  when  thus  cured,  sorghum  silage  has  usually 
been  found  more  acid  than  silage  made  from  corn. 


I 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  327 

For  autumn  feeding  it  would  seldom  probably  be 
advantageous  to  make  sorghum  into  silage  since  it 
may  be  fed  so  conveniently  at  that  season  from  the 
shock  or  heap,  as  the  case  may  be.  But  for  late 
winter  and  spring  feeding,  in  climates  subject  to  al- 
ternations of  high  and  low  temperatures  in  winter, 
it  is  perhaps  better  preserved  in  the  silo.  Alternate 
freezing  and  thawing  tend  to  affect  adversely  the 
value  of  its  saccharine  content. 

The  Non-Saccharine  Sorghums. — The  value  of 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums  as  silage  is  probably 
not  far  different  from  that  of  sorghum,  although  ex- 
perience in  storing  these  crops  in  the  silo  is  so  limited 
that  their  relative  value  for  making  silage  should  be 
spoken  of  with  a  prudent  reserve.  Since  they  are 
grown  in  areas  where  the  need  of  silos  is  not  so  im- 
perative as  where  corn  grows  at  its  best,  there  is  not 
the  same  necessity  for  making  them  into  silage. 
They  are  grown  to  the  greatest  extent  in  dry  areas 
where  the  fodder  is  not  much  liable  to  injury  from 
rain  when  exposed  in  stacks,  either  in  the  autumn  or 
winter.  There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  preserving 
any  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  in  the  silo,  but, 
since  they  are  usually  less  succulent  than  corn,  they 
should  be  put  into  the  silo  at  a  somewhat  less  ad- 
vanced stage  of  development. 

Leguminous  Plants  Other  Than  Clover. — The 
chief  of  these,  under  conditions  that  now  prevail  in 
the  United  States,  are  the  ordinary  field  pea,  the 
common  vetch,  the  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea.  These 
can  all  be  preserved  with  more  or  less  of  success  in 
the  silo,  but  when  preserved  thus  without  admixture 
or  alternation  with  other  crops,  as  corn,  in  instances 


328  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

too  numerous,  the  success  attained  has  been  only 
partial.  This  would  seem  to  be  true  even  of  soy 
bean  and  cowpea  silage.  Silage  made  from  these 
crops  is  too  frequently  acid  in  character,  and  in  too 
many  instances  it  has  become  more  or  less  decom- 
posed and  off  in  color  and  smell.  And  these  facts 
are  probably  true  in  a  greater  degree  of  the  common 
pea  and  the  common  vetch  than  of  the  soy  bean  and 
the  cowpea.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
two  plants  first  named  are  usually  put  into  the  silo  in 
a  form  too  succulent.  Whether  the  numerous  fail- 
ures in  the  attempt  to  preserve  these  crops  in  the 
silo  arises  from  want  of  knowledge  of  the  proper 
methods  of  doing  the  work,  cannot  as  yet  be  stated 
with  certainty,  but  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  possible  to  preserve 
them  with  more  uniform  success  than  has  heretofore 
been  attained. 

The  same  necessity  does  not  exist  for  preserv- 
ing the  common  pea  and  the  common  vetch  in  the 
silo  as  for  preserving  the  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea. 
Since  the  two  former  may  under  average  conditions 
be  easily  cured  in  the  dry  form.  They  are  so  fine  in 
foliage  that  they  readily  give  up  their  moisture  when 
being  cured.  Not  so  however  the  soy  bean  and  the 
cowpea.  They  are  so  coarse  of  straw  that  so  much 
time  is  necessary  to  cure  them  properly  and  also  so 
much  handling,  that  unless  great  care  is  exercised  in 
doing  the  work,  the  value  of  the  hay  thus  made  will 
be  greatly  impaired  through  the  loss  of  the  leaves. 

When  the  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea  are  stored 
in  the  silo  it  should,  when  practicable,  be  along  with 
corn  or  sorghum  in  some  of  its  varieties.  Some 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR   THE   SILO.  329 

persons  recommend  storing  these  foods  in  alternate 
layers,  since  they  consider  it  more  practicable  to  store 
in  layers  than  to  mix  the  food,  as  it  is  easier  to  handle 
first  one  food  and  then  the  other  when  storing,  than 
to  handle  the  two  simultaneously.  The  mixing  of 
the  food  may  be  done  when  feeding  it.  But,  if  it  is 
thought  better  to  mix  them  at  the  time  of  storing,  no 
serious  obstacle  stands  in  the  way.  This  method  of 
storing  tends  to  make  a  more  perfectly  balanced 
ration.  The  proportions  of  each  product  required  to 
make  a  balanced  ration  will  vary  with  variations  in 
the  analyses  of  the  crops.  But  even  when  these 
crops  are  stored  thus,  it  may  not  always  be  wise  to 
store  them  in  those  proportions  that  will  exactly 
adapt  the  food  to  the  needs  of  the  animals  to  which 
it  is  to  be  fed.  It  may  be  impossible  to  do  so  because 
of  a  preponderance  in  the  supply  of  one  or  the  other 
of  the  crops  grown.  If  it  is  true  that  corn,  or  sor- 
ghum exercises  a  preservative  influence  on  the  other 
foods,  it  would  seem  to  be  necessary  to  have  a  con- 
siderable preponderance  of  them  in  the  silo. 

It  is  easily  possible  to  grow  the  soy  bean  and  the 
cowpea  so  that  they  will  be  in  season  for  being  put 
into  the  silo  when  corn  or  sorghum  are  also  in  season. 
But  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  common  pea  or 
the  common  vetch. 

The  horse  bean  has  been  grown  to  determine  its 
value  for  silage  at  least  in  an  experimental  way  in 
the  vicinity  of  Ottawa,  Ont.  The  object  sought 
was  to  increase  the  protein  content  in  the  silage. 
Where  the  beans  can  be  profitably  grown  and  mixed 
with  corn  in  the  silo,  the  plan  of  using  them  thus 
would  seem  to  be  commendable,  but  the  area?  in 


33O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

which  horse  beans  and  corn  can  both  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully on  this  continent  are  not  extensive. 

Plants  of  the  Clover  Family. — Clover  in  all  its 
forms  may  be  made  into  silage  both  in  the  natural 
condition  and  after  it  has  been  run  through  a  cutting 
box.  It  is  more  common  however  to  preserve  thus, 
only  the  medium  red  and  the  mammoth  sorts.  Al- 
sike  clover  is  more  easily  cured  in  the  dry  form  than 
either  of  these,  because  of  its  fine  growth  and  the 
frequency  with  which  it  is  grown  along  with  tim- 
othy. It  is  much  easier  to  grow  an  equal  or  nearly 
equal  mixture  of  alsike  and  timothy,  than  of  the  red 
clovers  and  timothy,  and  the  timothy  thus  admixed 
with  the  alsike  is  favorable  to  quick  curing  in  the 
latter.  Alfalfa  is  more  commonly  grown  in  dry 
climates,  hence  the  necessity  for  preserving  it  in  the 
silo  is  not  very  great. 

While  fairly  good  silage  may  sometimes  be 
made  of  clover  when  put  into  the  silo  without  ad- 
mixture, it  does  not  seem  an  easy  task  to  preserve  it 
thus  in  a  manner  that  will  give  entire  satisfaction. 
In  too  many  instances,  when  taken  out  of  the  silo,  it 
is  too  dark  in  color  and  rank  in  odor  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  those  who  are  seeking  the  very  best 
quality  of  milk.  But  the  fact  that  it  is  sometimes 
preserved  with  a  fair  measure  of  sweetness  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  may  always  be  so  preserved 
if  the  conditions  that  govern  the  making  of  good 
clover  silage  were  fully  understood. 

Clover  is  more  easily  preserved  in  the  silo  when 
admixed  with  corn,  and  when  thus  preserved  the 
ration  provided  is  in  better  balance  than  if  it  con- 
sisted only  of  corn,  since  the  clover  adds  to  the 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  33! 

protein  content  which  is  too  much  wanting  in  the 
corn.  But  the  first  cutting  of  medium  red  clover  can- 
not be  thus  mixed  with  corn,  since  the  corn  is  not  far 
enough  advanced  for  being  put  into  the  silo  when  the 
clover  is  ready  for  being  thus  stored.  Nor  is  corn 
sufficiently  advanced  for  being  preserved  thus  along 
with  mammoth  clover.  But  the  second  cutting  of 
medium  red  clover  is  ready  for  being  siloed  at  the 
same  time  as  corn.  Because  of  the  greater  difficulty 
experienced  in  many  localities  in  curing  the  second 
growth  of  medium  clover,  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased dampness  of  the  weather  at  that  season  there 
is  sometimes  much  propriety  in  curing  it  in  the  silo. 
But  under  average  conditions  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  the  curing  of  clover  in  the  old-fashioned 
way,  with  the  exception  stated,  would  seem  to  be 
preferable  to  curing  it  in  the  silo.  In  climates  with 
much  rainfall  in  harvest  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  it  is 
different.  In  that  country  it  may  be  the  better  plan 
to  preserve  clover  in  the  silo. 

Millets. — The  different  kinds  of  millet  may  also 
be  preserved  in  the  silo,  although  they  are  seldom 
thus  handled  and  for  the  following  reasons: — 
I,  They  mature  at  a  season  of  the  year  favorable  to 
curing  in  the  dry  form,  that  is  to  say,  they  mature 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  2,  Like  ordinary 
hay  they  are  easily  handled  in  the  field  cured  form. 
3,  The  method  of  preserving  them  alone  or  unmixed 
in  the  silo  cannot  be  said  as  yet  to  have  proved  a 
decided  success.  Millet  silage  would  seem  to  be 
more  liable  to  mold  than  corn.  This  may  not  be 
true  of  pearl  millet,  but  experience  in  siloing  that 
product  would  seem  to  be  entirely  wanting. 


332  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

The  plan  of  preserving  millet,  in  some  of  its 
forms  at  least,  along  with  corn  may  have  some  com- 
mendable features,  since  it  is  usually  ready  for  being 
harvested  about  the  same  time  as  corn.  There  is  the 
objection  to  it  however,  that  it  does  not  improve  the 
feeding  value  of  the  mixture  so  much  as  a  legumi- 
nous plant  would,  since  the  latter  would  be  richer  in 
protein.  The  more  bulky  kinds  of  millet  and  the 
soy  bean  may  be  successfully  preserved  together  in 
the  silo.  They  make  a  good  food,  as  each  plant 
would  in  a  sense  be  the  complement  of  the  other.  It 
has  been  recommended  to  put  one  load  of  each  alter- 
nately into  the  silo  when  filling  it,  and  to  sprinkle 
several  buckets  of  water  over  each  load  of  millet 
when  in  the  silo. 

The  Common  Cereals. — Under  this  head  only 
wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley  will  be  considered. 
There  would  seem  to  be  but  little  reason  for  preserv- 
ing these  crops  in  the  silo,  even  though  they  made 
good  silage.  The  grain  alone  which  they  produce 
is  usually  more  valuable  than  the  silage  made  from 
them,  since  they  must  be  made  into  silage  while  yet 
somewhat  lacking  in  cornpletest  possible  nutrition. 
Nor  can  they  be  readily  preserved  in  the  silo  owing 
to  the  hollow  and  dry  character  of  the  stem.  Silage 
as  ordinarily  made  from  these  crops  is  much  liable 
to  injury  from  dry  mold.  This  liability  can  of  course 
be  lessened  by  much  tramping  while  the  silo  is  being 
filled,  and  by  sprinkling  the  mass  freely  with  water 
occasionally,  also  by  cutting  the  food  a  little  earlier 
than  it  is  usually  cut.  The  Author  made  good 
silage  from  winter  rye  at  the  Ontario  experiment 
station  at  Guelph  in  1891.  The  rye  was  cut  when 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  333 

fully  out  in  head  and  was  then  run  through  a  cutting 
box.  The  cattle  to  which  it  was  fed  ate  it  with 
evident  relish:  But  while  the  rye  silage  was  thus 
being  fed,  the  exposed  surface  in  the  silo  dried  out 
so  quickly  between  the  feeding  periods  that  the  pala- 
tability  of  the  silage  was  materially  lessened,  not- 
withstanding that  it  was  being  fed  to  a  considerable 
number  of  animals. 

All  things  considered,  there  would  not  seem  to 
be  any  great  necessity  for  making  these  crops  into 
silage.  The  grain  is  usually  more  needed  than  the 
silage.  They  can  usually  be  readily  cured  as  hay 
when  wanted  in  that  form,  and  there  is  also  less 
hazard  on  the  whole  in  curing  them  as  hay. 

Field  Roots. — There  would  seem  to  be  no  good 
reason  why  the  attempt  should  be  made  to  keep  field 
roots  in  the  silo  under  existing  conditions,  since  they 
can  be  so  easily  preserved  in  cellars  and  pits.  The 
only  exception  is  the  pulp  made  from  sugar  beets 
after  the  sugar  has  been  extracted  from  them.  And 
yet  it  is  possible  that  the  day  will  come  when  field 
roots  will  be  run  through  a  pulper  and  made  into 
silage  to  secure  greater  convenience  in  storing  and 
feeding.  They  could  thus  be  stored  in  less  space 
and  they  would  be  in  condition  that  would  fit  them 
for  being  fed  to  any  kind  of  live  stock  without  fur- 
ther preparation. 

It  will  perhaps,  in  all  cases,  be  found  more 
profitable  to  feed  the  tops  of  field  roots  directly  to 
live  stock  than  to  try  to  preserve  them  in  the  silo. 
The  labor  of  handling  them  thus  is  very  much  less 
than  the  labor  of  first  putting  them  into  the  silo  and 
feeding  them  out  again,  even  though  they  could  be 


334  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

cured  with  but  little  hazard.  But  it  is  pretty  certain 
that  they  cannot  be  cured  thus,  because  of  the  excess 
of  moisture  which  they  contain.  This  at  least  has 
been  the  outcome  of  experiments  made  heretofore  to 
preserve  the  tops  of  field  roots  in  the  silo. 

But  it  is  different  with  beet  pulp.  The  feeding 
value  is  not  greatly  reduced  by  taking  so  much  of 
the  sugar  content  from  it.  It  is  ordinarily  not  prac- 
ticable for  farmers  contiguous  to  the  beet  factory  to 
cart  the  entire  product  of  the  pulp  from  the  same  and 
to  feed  it  on  their  farms.  They  cannot  do  so  in  cold 
weather  and  the  time  required  would  be  too  valuable 
unless  when  they  lived  near  the  factory.  It  would 
seem  to  be  in  a  sense  necessary  therefore  to  store  it 
in  a  silo  of  some  kind  near  the  factory  and  to 
feed  it  from  the  same.  The  product  thus  pre- 
served has  been  made  to  furnish  an  excellent  adjunct 
in  feeding  dairy  stock  and  cattle  and  sheep  that 
are  being  kept  for  breeding  uses  or  that  are  being 
fattened. 

Rape. — Experiments  have  been  made  to  pre- 
serve rape  in  the  silo,  but  so  far  as  the  Author  has 
been  able  to  ascertain,  they  have  not  been  successful. 
Like  the  tops  of  field  roots,  rape  is  too  watery  to 
make  good  silage.  It  decays  in  the  silo,  turns  black 
in  color  and  becomes  tainted  with  an  offensive  odor. 
Nor  is  there  any  real  necessity  for  curing  it  thus. 
The  labor  of  handling  would  be  increased  as  com- 
pared with  that  entailed  in  feeding  it  directly  as 
soiling  food.  Though  preserved  ever  so  well,  it 
would  have  to  be  fed  with  much  caution  to  milch 
cows  lest  taint  might  be  produced  in  the  milk.  It 
would  seem  therefore  to  be  a  waste  of  time  for  any 


CROPS    SUITABLE    FOR    THE    SILO.  335 

but  experimenters  to  ever  try  to  preserve  rape 
in  the  silo. 

The  Sunflower. — The  growing  of  sunflowers  to 
be  made  into  silage  along  with  corn  has  been  advo- 
cated by  some  high  authorities  and  has  been  practiced 
to  a  very  limited  extent  by  farmers  in  some  sections 
of  Ontario.  The  object  sought  is  to  so  increase  the 
feeding  value  of  the  silage  that  the  complement  of 
grain  to  be  added  to  the  same  when  it  is  fed  can  be 
materially  lessened.  The  sunflowers  are  grown  in 
rows  and  cultivated  much  after  the  fashion  of  corn. 
The  heads  only  are  used.  They  are  gathered,  run 
through  a  cutting  box  and  mixed  with  corn  while 
the  silo  is  being  rilled. 

Large  yields  of  heads  have  thus  been  obtained, 
as  high  in  some  instances  as  eight  tons  per  acre.  But 
it  would  seem  questionable  if  this  plant  will  ever  be 
extensively  grown  for  such  a  use  and  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons: — i,  The  labor  of  gathering  the  heads 
is  considerable.  It  must  be  done  by  hand.  2,  The 
stalks  which  require  much  plant  food  to  grow  them 
have  no  feeding  value.  3,  They  also  cumber  the 
land  and. involve  extra  labor  in  removing  them,  for 
which  there  would  seem  to  be  no  adequate  compensa- 
tion unless  when  they  can  be  used  as  fuel. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FILLING  THE  SILO. 

When  crops  are  preserved  in  the  silo,  much  of 
the  success  in  thus  storing  them  depends  upon  such 
considerations  as  the  stage  at  which  they  are  har- 
vested and  the  precise  methods  followed  in  storing. 
The  expense  incurred  will  also  be  materially  affected 
by  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  done.  The  various 
questions  which  bear  upon  these  points  will  now  be 
considered. 

Stage  of  Harvesting. — The  stage  of  develop- 
ment at  which  crops  should  be  harvested  when  put 
into  the  silo  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  crop  to  be 
preserved.  Corn  is  in  the  best  condition  for  being 
harvested  when  the  grain  in  the  ear  has  reached  the 
"glazed  stage"  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  the 
"roasting  stage."  If  put  into  the  silo  at  an  earlier 
period  the  corn  is  less  nutritious  than  it  would  other- 
wise be,  and  it  is  also  more  likely  to  make  silage 
unduly  acid.  If  allowed  to  pass  the  stage  indicated, 
the  corn  is  somewhat  liable  to  become  more  or  less 
moldy.  The  mold  thus  formed  is  found  in  spots 
or  masses  interspersed  through  the  silage.  The 
over-acid  condition  is  induced  by  over  succulence  in 
the  corn,  and  the  moldy  condition  by  want  of  succu- 
lence. The  remedy  for  the  first  consists  in  wilting 
the  corn  more  or  less  before  siloing  it,  and  for  the 
second,  in  cutting  the  corn  at  an  earlier  period.  It 

336 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  337 

should  be  possible  in  all  instances  to  apply  the  last 
mentioned  remedy,  but  not  the  first  mentioned,  since 
there  are  localities  in  which  the  season  is  too  short  to 
admit  of  corn  reaching  the  roasting  stage  before  the 
arrival  of  frost,  and  yet  in  these  localities  it  may  be 
desirable  to  make  silage  from  corn. 

The  degree  of  the  wilting  will  be  dependent  on 
the  succulence  of  the  corn.  The  less  advanced  the 
stage  of  the  growth,  the  more  should  the  corn  be 
wilted.  Good  silage  has  been  made  at  Indian  Head, 
Can.,  from  corn  cut  before  grain  had  been  formed 
in  the  ear.  If  corn  should  pass  the  proper  stage  of 
maturity  before  it  is  put  into  the  silo,  it  will  keep 
better  if  water  is  poured  over  the  mass  occasionally 
while  the  silo  is  being  filled.  The  same  result  will 
measurably  follow  if  some  more  succulent  food,  as 
clover  or  oats  and  peas  are  mixed  with  the  corn. 

When  corn  is  struck  with  frost  and  is  then  al- 
lowed to  stand  uncut  for  some  time  subsequently,  it 
will  be  greatly  injured  for  feeding.  But  if,  when 
thus  stricken,  the  crop  is  at  once  cut  and  put  into  the 
silo,  the  value  of  the  silage  made  from  it,  though 
reduced  is  not  seriously  impaired. 

The  exact  stage  of  development  at  which 
sorghum  and  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  ought 
to  be  cut  have  not  yet  been  fully  determined, 
but  it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  best  stage 
for  harvesting  these  crops  will  be  when  they 
are  just  a  little  short  of  maturity.  But  crops  even  of 
the  same  species  are  by  no  means  equally  succulent 
at  the  same  stage  of  advancement.  Much  depends 
upon  the  climate,  and  season,  and  this  fact  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of  when  they  are  being  made  into  silage. 
3? 


338  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

The  soy  bean  should  be  harvested  when  the 
beans  are  more  or  less  grown  in  the  pods,  and  the 
same  is  .true  of  the  cowpea  and  the  horse  bean.  It 
is  usually  considered  preferable  to  allow  the  pods  to 
become  well  advanced,  so  as  to  increase  the  feeding 
value  of  the  silage,  but  more  experience  is  wanted 
in  siloing  these  crops  before  the  exact  stage  of 
growth  can  be  certainly  known  at  which  they  ought 
to  be  harvested. 

Clover  should  be  cut  for  the  silo  when  coming 
into  full  bloom.  If  cut  earlier  it  is  too  immature 
and  is  over  succulent.  If  cut  later  it  is  lacking  in 
succulence.  Rye  and  wheat  should  be  cut  as  soon 
as  out  in  head,  and  the  same  is  true  of  millets.  Oats 
and  peas  grown  together  are  ready  when  the  pods  in 
the  peas  are  in  process  of  filling.  The  seed  of  sun- 
flowers should  be  allowed  to  become  nearly  matured 
before  putting  them  into  the  silo.  But  from  what 
has  already  been  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  the 
period  of  harvesting  may  be  Varied  somewhat  by  the 
treatment  given  to  the  crops  while  storing  them. 

Cutting  Crops  for  the  Silo. — The  implement  to 
be  used  in  cutting  crops  for  the  silo  will  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  crop.  Very  frequently  the  field 
mower  is  used.  The  exceptions  are,  corn,  sorghum 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  sunflower  heads,  and 
in  some  instances  such  crops  as  rye  and  millet.  Rye 
and  millet  are  sometimes  harvested  with  the  ordinary 
binder.  When  thus  harvested  they  are  handled  with 
but  little  labor.  Some  form  of  knife  must  be  used  in 
cutting  off  the  heads  of  sunflowers.  The  best  mode 
of  cutting  corn  and  sorghum  for  the  silo  will  vary 
with  conditions.  When  small  quantities  only  are  to 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  339 

be  put  into  the  silo,  it  is  questionable  if  any  imple- 
ment used  by  hand  is  superior  to  the  corn  knife. 
But  when  large  areas  are  to  be  cut,  the  corn  binder 
should  do  the  work  satisfactorily  and  with  despatch 
when  the  corn  or  sorghum  stands  fairly  erect. 

Conveying  the  Crop  to  the  Silo. — Since  crops 
for  the  silo  must  be  harvested  in  the  green  form, 
they  handle  very  heavily.  The  aim  should  be  to 
convey  them  to  the  silo  by  that  method  that  will 
involve  the  least  expenditure  in  labor.  Ordinarily 
therefore  they  should  be  loaded  on  conveyances 
which  do  not  rise  far  from  the  ground.  Careful 
attention  to  this  matter  will  prevent  the  expenditure 
of  muscle  in  a  marked  degree.  Trucks  with  low 
wheels  and  covered  with  a  broad  platform  are  suit- 
able for  such  work.  The  only  objection  to  them 
probably  is  the  heavy  draught.  A  platform  is  some- 
times made  on  which  to  load  these  crops,  and  when 
in  use  it  is  suspended  underneath  the  front  and  hind 
bolsters  of  an  ordinary  wagon.  It  consists  of  two 
strong  scantlings  of  hardwood  of  any  length  within 
the  limits  of  practicability,  and  held  together  by  cross- 
pieces  at  both  ends.  Inch  boards  of  some  hard  wood 
are  nailed  across  these  scantlings.  If  pine  is  the 
material  used,  the  boards  or  planks  should  be  thicker. 
The  platform  is  suspended  so  as  to  come  within 
about  a  foot  of  the  ground.  The  green  food  is 
placed  on  the  same  for  conveyance  to  the  silo. 

In  gathering  some  kinds  of  crops  for  convey- 
ance to  the  silo,  as  clover  for  instance,  a  hay  loader 
may  sometimes  be  used  with  advantage.  But  when 
so  used  the  green  food  must  be  lifted  from  the  swath 
where  the  mower  left  it.  Sunflower  heads  are 


34O  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

usually  cut  with  a  strong  knife  and  thrown  directly 
into  a  wagon  box.  In  this  they  are  driven  to  where 
the  cutting  box  is  placed. 

Whether  crops  should  be  wilted  or  not  before 
being  put  into  the  silo,  and  also  the  degree  to  which 
they  should  be  wilted,  will  depend  largely  on  the 
natural  succulence  in  the  crop,  and  the  stage  at  which 
it  is  cut.  Crops  that  are  quite  succulent,  as  green 
clover,  are  more  easily  preserved  when  wilted  more 
or  less.  On  the  other  hand  crops  lacking  in  succu- 
lence, as  winter  rye,  cannot  be  placed  in  the  silo  too 
soon  after  they  have  been  cut.  Corn  cut  at  the 
proper  stage  may  be  put  directly  into  the  silo,  but 
corn  less  mature  should  be  wilted  more  or  less  ac- 
cording as  it  is  lacking  in  maturity. 

Putting  Crops  into  the  Silo. — Whether  crops 
should  be  run  through  a  cutting  box  or  not  before 
putting  them  into  the  silo  will  depend  upon  con- 
ditions. When  but  a  limited  quantity  of  silage  is 
wanted,  and  where  labor  is  not  easily  obtained,  it 
may  sometimes  be  wise  to  store  crops  in  the  silo  in 
the  uncut  form.  But  this  method  of  storing  them 
is  not  always  practicable.  In  a  silo  entirely  above 
the  ground,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  get 
corn,  for  instance,  into  the  same  without  excessive 
labor,  and  if  put  into  a  silo  that  goes  far  down  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  it  would  be  even  more  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  corn  out  again.  The  only  crops  that 
could  be  stored  in  the  over-ground  silo  without 
excessive  labor,  are  those  which  may  be  deposited  in 
the  same  with  the  aid  of  the  horse  forks. 

In  a  large  majority  of  instances  it  will  prove 
more  satisfactory  in  many  ways  to  store  food  in  the 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  341 

silo  after  it  has  first  been  run  through  a  cutting  box, 
and  for  reasons  as  follows: — i,  Much  less  labor  is 
required  to  put  it  into  the  silo  and  to  pack  it  so  as 
to  exclude  the  air.  2,  It  usually  keeps  better 
in  the  cut  form.  3,  Much  less  labor  is  involved 
in  feeding  the  silage.  4,  A  smaller  proportion 
will  be  rejected  by  the  animals.  5,  Meal  may 
be  mixed  with  the  cut  silage  as  may  be  desired. 
Whenever  silage  is  fed  in  a  large  way,  it  will 
certainly  pay  well  to  run  the  food  through  a 
cutting  box  before  it  is  stored  rather  than  to 
store  it  in  the  uncut  form. 

Where  corn,  sorghum  or  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  are  to  be  run  through  a  cutting  box  when 
put  into  the  silo,  the  cutting  box  chosen  should  be 
strong,  and  when  much  work  is  to  be  done,  it  should 
be  capacious,  that  the  work  may  be  done  rapidly.  It 
may  of  course  be  driven  by  any  kind  of  power  not 
unduly  expensive.  The  tendency  now  is  to  prefer 
engine  power  to  horse  power. 

The  lengths  to  which  the  food  should  be  cut 
is  yet  an  unsettled  point.  In  fact  it  will  vary  to 
some  extent  with  the  crops  stored.  All  things  con- 
sidered, however,  short  lengths  in  the  food  cut  are 
preferable  to  those  longer.  They  may  be  packed 
more  tightly  and  handled  more  readily  when  feeding 
than  silage  of  longer  lengths.  Those  from  one-half 
to  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  of  such  hard  substance? 
as  corn  or  sorghum  stalks,  are  in  favor  with  many. 
Intermediate  lengths,  that  is,  lengths  a  little  longer 
than  the  above,  have  been  objected  to  because 
of  the  soreness  of  mouth  sometimes  induced  in  cattle, 
from  biting  on  the  ends  of  the  cuts  rather  than  on  the 


342  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

sides  of  the  same  which  they  must  needs  do  if  the 
pieces  are  long*.  The  only  objection  probably  to 
the  short  lengths  in  the  silage  arise  from  the  in- 
creased labor  of  cutting  the  food  thus  short.  It 
would  not  seem  to  be  necessary  to  cut  soft-stemmed 
crops  in  lengths  so  short  as  those  that  are  hard. 

The  expense  of  making  silage  is  lessened  by 
doing  the  work  in  such  a  way  that  all  the  workmen 
engaged  shall  be  kept  employed,  that  is  to  say,  when 
the  men  in  the  silo  do  not  have  to  wait  for  cut  food, 
when  the  engine  does  not  have  to  wait  idly  for  the 
arrival  of  uncut  food  from  the  fields,  and  when  the 
workmen  in  the  fields  do  not  have  to  wait  for  the 
return  of  the  teams  which  draw  the  food.  To  ar- 
range the  work  thus  requires  some  executive  tact, 
and  where  silos  are  numerous  in  any  locality,  it  can 
be  most  cheaply  done  when  done  in  a  co-operative 
way. 

Putting  the  Food  Into  the  Silo. — The  silo  may 
be  filled  quickly  and  without,  any  interruption  save 
that  which  is  made  by  taking  the  usual  rest  required 
by  the  workhands.  Or,  it  may  be  filled  slowly  and 
at  intervals  as  may  be  convenient.  The  intervals  of 
cessation  in  filling  should  not  at  any  time  cover  many 
days  lest  the  exposed  silage  should  begin  to  decay, 
unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  wait  after  the  silo 
has  been  partially  cured  for  some  other  crop  to 
mature.  In  such  an  event  more  or  less  of  the  food 
that  was  last  put  into  the  silo  will  be  spoiled.  This 
ought  to  be  removed  before  the  filling  of  the  silo  is 
resumed.  When  but  a  short  period  is  covered  in 
filling  the  silo,  although  it  should  be  filled  to  the  brim, 
it  will  not  remain  full. 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  343 

The  silage  will  continue  to  settle  for  several 
days,  so  that  a  large  space  will  be  left  vacant  above 
the  silage.  Where  two  silos  are  to  be  filled  that  are 
near  at  hand,  the  difficulty  will  be  partially  met  by 
filling  both  at  the  same  time,  that  is  to  say,  by  filling 
one  in  part  and  then  the  other  in  successive  alterna- 
tions until  both  are  full.  More  time  is  thus  given 
for  the  silage  to  settle.  For  the  same  reason,  when 
a  silo  is  being  rilled  with  a  division  in  it,  the  two 
divisions  should  be  likewise  filled  simultaneously. 
And  when  thus  filled  the  danger  from  pressing  the 
division  away  from  the  perpendicular  is  also  ob- 
viated. But  it  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  that 
quick  or  reasonably  slow  filling  materially  affects  the 
character  of  the  silage. 

The  proper  distribution  of  the  food  in  the  silo 
is  a  matter  of  no  slight  importance.  When  it  is  al- 
lowed to  fall  from  the  carriers  which  convey  it  to  the 
silo,  the  mass  rises  up  in  the  center  in  the  shape  of  a 
cone.  From  this  cone  the  food  rolls  down  toward 
the  sides  of  the  silo.  But  in  doing  so,  the  lighter 
portions,  as  for  instance  the  leaves  of  corn,  are 
forced  outward  by  the  heavier  portions,  as  the  grain 
and  stem.  The  quality  of  the  silage,  therefore,  on 
the  outer  edges  is  frequently  inferior  to  that  in  and 
near  the  center  of  the  same,  especially  when  it  con- 
tains less  grain.  If,  therefore,  the  quality  of  the 
silage  is  to  be  uniform  in  the  silo,  it  must  be  carefully 
distributed  from  the  first. 

But  still  greater  harm  will  follow  from  allowing 
the  silage  thus  to  pile  up  in  the  center.  It  will  not 
settle  evenly.  The  pressure  is  greatest  in  the  center, 
and  the  tendency  in  settling  will  be  to  draw  away  the 


344  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

food  from  the  walls  of  the  silo,  and  air  will  thus  be 
admitted  with  the  result  that  much  of  the  mass  on 
the  outer  edges  will  be  spoiled.  This  condition  is 
even  more  aggravated  when  such  food  as  clover,  for 
instance,  is  thus  put  into  the  silo  with  the  horse-fork. 
Loss  from  this  source  may  be  prevented  by  first  dis- 
tributing the  food  evenly  during  the  filling  of  the 
silo,  and  then  tramping  it  so  that  the  impaction  of  the 
mass  will  be  about  equal  in  all  parts  of  the  silo.  The 
amount  of  tramping  required  will  be  least  in  the 
center  of  the  silo  and  greatest  on  the  outer  edges. 
In  the  square  or  rectangular  silo,  particular  pains 
should  be  taken  to  tramp  down  the  mass  firmly  in  the 
corners,  or  harm  will  follow  from  the  admission  of 
air.  The  amount  of  tramping  required  will  vary 
with  the  nature  of  the  food,  the  shape  of  the  silo  and 
the  depth  of  the  same.  The  less  succulent  the  food 
and  the  more  woody  it  is  in  character,  the  more 
should  it  be  tramped.  More  tramping  on  the  whole 
is  necessary  in  a  square  or  rectangular  silo  than  in  a 
round  one,  since  the  food  settles  more  readily  in  the 
latter.  Less  tramping  is  needed  in  a  deep  silo  than 
in  a  shallow  one,  since  when  the  silo  is  deep,  the 
silage  sinks  more  under  the  pressure,  as  it  were,  of 
its  own  weight.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  much 
care  should  be  taken  to  tramp  down  firmly  the  food, 
in  the  upper  portion  of  a  silo  whatever  its  shape  may 
be  or  the  extent  of  its  depth. 

In  a  large  silo  the  distribution  of  the  food  may 
be  facilitated  by  the  introduction  of  a  simple  device. 
It  consists  of  a  platform  or  table  made  of  boards  and 
suspended  far  upward  in  the  silo  and  equally  distant 
from  its  walls.  The  food  falls  from  the  carriers 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  345 

onto  the  center  of  this  table.  As  soon  as  it  accumu- 
lates sufficiently  on  the  same  it  rolls  down  over  the 
outer  edges,  and  is  in  consequence  distributed  over  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  silo. 

Covering  the  Silage. — Various  methods  have 
been  adopted  of  covering-  the  silo  to  preserve  the 
silage  on  and  near  the  surface.  They  include  the  fol- 
lowing:— i,  Covering  with  old  haj  or  straw  in  the 
cut  or  uncut  form  to  the  depth  of  from  one  to  several 
feet.  2,  Covering  with  some  kind  of  cloth  through 
which  the  air  does  not  easily  penetrate,  and  then 
placing  over  this  a  layer  of  hay  or  straw  as  men- 
tioned above.  3,  Covering  with  boards  generally 
laid  over  a  covering  of  straw  and  then  weighting  the 
boards  with  some  heavy  substance  as  stone  or  barrels 
filled  with  earth.  4,  Sowing  some  kind  of  grain 
over  the  surface  of  the  silage  and  then  pouring  or 
sprinkling  water  over  it  copiously  so  as  to  cover  the 
mass  with  a  dense  growth  of  grain  and  grain  roots. 

The  first  method  furnishes  a  cheap  covering  so 
far  as  material  is  concerned.  Old  hay  fine  in 
character  such  as  is  found  in  fence  corners  where 
blue  grass  has  possession,  makes  a  better  covering 
than  hay  coarse  in  character,  or  than  straw,  since  it 
lies  more  densely  upon  the  silage.  When  either  of 
the  two  last  named  substances  is  used  it  ought  to 
be  run  through  a  cutting  box.  The  tramping  of  the 
covering  should  also  be  given  careful  attention.  And 
if  a  few  buckets  of  water  are  at  the  same  time  thrown 
over  the  mass,  it  will  help  to  exclude  the  air  more 
perfectly. 

The  second  method  will  probably  preserve  more 
silage  than  the  first,  but  the  covering  thus  provided 


346  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

is  more  costly.  Whether  the  advantage  will  repay 
the  additional  outlay  has  not  yet  been  proved. 

The  third  method,  thought  at  one  time  to  be 
absolutely  essential,  has  been  almost  entirely  dis- 
carded, not  because  of  its  want  of  efficacy  so  much  as 
because  of  the  labor  involved.  The  benefits  derived 
from  it  are  greater  when  some  covering  is  put  on  as 
described  above,  before  the  planks  are  laid  over  the 
food  and  weighted  with  stone  or  indeed  any  other 
heavy  substance.  The  advantage  from  thus  weight- 
ing the  silage  will  be  lessened  by  giving  much  tramp- 
ing to  the  food  as  the  filling  of  the  silo  nears 
completion.  No  doubt  there  will  be  less  waste  of 
silage  when  food  in  the  silo  is  thus  covered  and 
weighted.  The  saving  thus  effected  in  the  silage  will 
be  more  than  is  generally  supposed,  because  of  the 
salutary  influence  which  the  weighting  exerts  on  the 
silage  for  some  distance  from  the  surface,  even 
though  it  may  not  have  lost  its  color.  But  as  stated 
above,  the  practice  is  not  in  favor  because  of  the  cost 
involved. 

The  plan  of  covering  silage  by  strewing  grain, 
as  oats  for  instance,  over  the  top  of  the  same,  and 
then  pouring  water  more  or  less  copiously  over  the 
mass,  is  a  good  one.  The  heat  engendered  in  the 
silo  starts  at  once  a  rank  growth  in  the  grain.  The 
growth  of  top  and  root  becorne  so  dense  as  to  go  far 
toward  excluding  the  air.  And  when  the  living 
mass  falls  down  and  decays,  the  influence  exerted, 
for  some  time  at  least,  is  practically  the  same,  hence 
there  is  usually  but  little  loss  in  the  silage.  This 
plan  has  the  merit  of  cheapness,  of  economy  in  labor 
required  and  of  efficacy  in  a  marked  degree, 


FILLING    THE    SILO.  347 

But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  by  whatso- 
ever method  the  silage  is  covered,  there  will  be  more 
or  less  of  loss.  Because  of  this,  some  silo  owners 
have  adopted  the  practice  of  not  covering  the  silage 
at  all.  They  argue  that  the  greater  waste  of  silage 
that  follows  is  at  least  offset  by  the  labor  involved  in 
covering  the  silage.  This  may  be  true  of  the 
more  laborious  methods  adopted,  as  by  weighting, 
but  it  is  scarcely  true  when  the  comparison  is  made 
between  no  covering  and  covering  with  a  growth  of 
grain.  To  leave  silage  thus  uncovered  would  only 
be  commendable  when  the  feeding  of  the  silage  is  to 
begin  at  once. 

Preserving  Green  Crops  Without  the  Silo. — 
Crops  are  sometimes  preserved  in  the  green  form 
without  a  silo.  They  are  thus  preserved  in  the  stack 
and  also  under  cover  in  the  mow.  The  principle  of 
preservation  however  is  the  same.  Through  the 
partial  fermentation  which  the  food  undergoes,  the 
air  in  the  mass  is  expelled  and  through  pressure 
induced  by  the  green  condition  of  the  food,  the  air 
is  kept  excluded.  This  pressure  is  sometimes  fur- 
ther increased  by  artificial  means  in  some  instances 
while  the  food  is  being  deposited  and  in  other  in- 
stances subsequently.  When  food  is  thus  stored  the 
stack  and  also  the  mow  becomes  in  a  sense  a  sito. 

Curing  green  food  in  the  stack  is  somewhat 
common  in  Great  Britain,  while  the  green  food  is 
being  stacked  heavy  rollers  are  made  to  run  over  the 
green  mass  from  time  ro  time,  or  pressure  is  other- 
wise applied,  and  the  food  is  thus  preserved.  While 
the  practice  may  be  a  good  one  for  farmers  to  adopt 
in  countries  with  much  rain  in  harvest,  and  where 


348  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  winter  climate  is  mild,  it  is  at  least  questionable 
as  to  whether  it  ought  to  be  introduced  into  locali- 
ties where  green  crops  can  be  cured  in  the  dry  form 
without  much  hazard.  When  the  cold  in  winter  is 
severe,  the  frost  would  penetrate  more  or  less  into 
the  exposed  surfaces  and  bind  them  together  so  as  to 
interfere  with  handling  the  food  at  such  times.  The 
work  of  stacking  the  food  in  the  green  condition  is 
also  more  or  less  laborious;  nor  is  the  green  food 
when  thus  cured  as  easily  handled  as  dry  food.  The 
possibility  however  of  curing  food  thus  is  not  to  be 
called  in  question.  Thus  far,  therefore,  the  way  is 
prepared  for  those  who  care  to  do  so,  to  follow  such 
a  system. 

The  method  of  preserving  food  under  cover  in 
the  green  form  and  yet  not  in  a  silo,  has  met  with 
some  favor  in  the  United  States,  but  only  in  limited 
areas.  When  thus  preserved,  it  has  been  in  mows 
or  sheds,  and  tramped  down  during  the  filling  pro- 
cess. Green  clover  has  thus  been  preserved  in  some 
of  the  northern  states.  In  the  central  and  southern 
states  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  have  also  been  stored 
thus  with  success.  And  more  recently  reports  have 
appeared  in  which  it  is  claimed  that  sorghum  may 
similarly  be  preserved. 

That  such  crops  as  clover,  cowpeas  and  soy 
beans  may  thus  be  preserved  cannot  be  called  in  ques- 
tion and  yet  there  is  an  element  of  hazard  about  their 
preservation  by  this  method  that  should  lead  the 
unskilled  in  such  work  to  refrain  from  undertaking 
it,  until  they  have  first  made  themselves  familiar 
with  the  conditions  that  govern  the  successful  curing 
of  those  crops  in  the  green  form  in  the  mow.  The 


FILLING    THE    SILO. 

degree  of  moisture  in  the  crops,  the  amount  of  the 
tramping  that  should  be  given,  and  the  size  of  the 
mow  are  all  important  considerations.  Clover  is 
commonly  allowed  to  wilt  a  little  before  being  thus 
stored  and  the  same  is  true  of  cowpeas  and  soy 
beans.  Some  authorities  claim  that  the  wilting 
should  be  continued  until  it  is  no  longer  possible  to 
wring  much  water  out  of  the  green  mass.  Much 
tramping  is  also  considered  advantageous,  and  a  deep 
mow  is  preferable  to  a  shallow  one.  Likewise  outer 
walls  smooth  on  the  inside  are  more  favorable  to  the 
settling  of  the  food  than  those  with  horizontal  tim- 
bers, as  girts,  to  hinder  the  proper  settling  down  of 
the  same.  Not  a  few  who  have  tried  to  preserve 
food  thus  have  signally  failed.  Closely  connected 
with  such  instances  of  failure  is  the  hazard  of  loss 
to  the  building  as  well,  through  fire  produced  by 
what  is  termed  spontaneous  combustion.  But  since 
cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are  difficult  to  cure  in  the 
dry  form  without  much  loss  of  leaves,  it  may  be  wise 
to  try  and  cure  them  thus,  more  especially  when 
there  is  much  hazard  from  rain. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FEEDING  SILAGEL 

When  silage  has  been  properly  covered  in  the 
silo,  the  waste  from  decay  on  the  surface  of  the  same 
should  not  extend  downward  more  than  a  few 
inches.  When  not  covered  at  all,  the  spoiled  silage 
will  extend  downward  at  least  a  foot  and  in  some  in- 
stances to  a  distance  considerably  greater.  After 
a  time,  decay  below  the  surface  practically  ceases, 
hence  subsequently  there  is  but  little  further  loss 
from  this  source,  though  the  opening  of  the  silo 
should  be  delayed  for  months  after  it  has  been  filled. 
The  silage  also  retains  more  or  less  heat  for  many 
months  and  this  is  favorable  to  feeding  the  same  in 
cold  weather. 

When  the  Feeding  May  Begin. — The  feeding 
of  silage  may  be  commenced  the  same  day  that  the 
filling  of  the  silo  has  been  completed.  When  feeding 
begins  thus  early,  there  is  naturally  no  loss  of  silage 
from  decay,  providing  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
silage  thus  removed  from  day  to  day.  The  Author 
has  fed  silage  from  the  silo  in  this  way  and  with 
results  completely  satisfactory.  But  it  is  not  usual 
to  begin  feeding  silage  so  soon  after  the  silo  has 
been  filled,  for  the  reason  that  other  green  food  can 
be  had  that  is  more  perishable  in  character. 

Feed  from  the  Top  Downward. — In  feeding 
silage  it  is  indispensable  that  the  silo  shall  be  opened 

350 


FEEDING   SILAGE.  35! 

at  the  top,  and  that  in  all  instances  the  silage  shall 
be  fed  from  the  top  downwards.  When  silos  were 
first  introduced  into  America,  the  egregious  mistake 
was  made  of  opening  them  at  or  near  the  bottom. 
When  thus  opened  the  air  is  admitted  so  as  to 
penetrate  upwards  more  or  less  into  the  mass, 
and  thus  hasten  its  decay.  Much  of  the  silage 
above  falls  down  from  time  to  time  and  in  such 
a  loose  condition  it  at  once  begins  to  spoil.  It 
is  necessary  therefore,  under  all  circumstances,  to 
feed  from  the  top  downwards,  but  it  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  feed  from  the  whole  surface 
of  the  silo  at  once.  A  section  only  of  the 
mass  of  silage  may  be  fed  from  until  it  is  all 
gone,  but  when  silage  is  thus  fed  in  sections  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom,  there  is  more  loss  in  silage  than 
when  it  is  fed  from  the  entire  surface,  except 
when  the  size  of  the  silo  is  too  great  for  the  number 
of  animals  that  are  being  fed  from  it.  This  method 
of  feeding  silage  therefore  is  only  justifiable, 
when  the  quantity  to  be  fed  at  one  time  is  too 
small  to  admit  of  feeding  from  the  whole  sur- 
face without  harm  to  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
silage. 

No  more  of  the  product  on  the  surface  should  be 
loosened  up  at  one  time  than  is  wanted  for  immediate 
feeding,  as  when  thus  loosened  and  not  soon  fed,  the 
quality  of  the  food  deteriorates.  But  when  feeding 
from  the  whole  surface  of  the  silo  it  may  be  necessary 
to  remove  the  silage  from  only  a  portion  of  the  sur- 
'face  when  providing  food  to  give  the  stock  but  one 
meal.  Another  part  may  be  removed  to  furnish  the 
next  meal. 


352  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

Under  such  conditions  it  will  be  decidedly  ad- 
vantageous to  have  a  covering,  as  of  oiled  cotton 
cloth,  lying  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  silo.  Such 
a  covering  is  not  expensive,  and  it  will  tend  to  keep 
the  silage  on  the  surface  in  better  condition  for  feed- 
ing. When  such  a  covering  is  used  it  can  be  laid 
backward  only  far  enough  to  make  bare  a  sufficient 
space  to  furnish  food  for  feeding  at  one  time.  The 
cover  should  be  at  once  put  back,  and  in  this  way  the 
feeding  progresses.  But  even  when  thus  managed, 
it  should  be  the  aim  to  feed  from  every  part  of  the 
surface,  at  least  as  frequently  as  once  in  two  or 
three  days.  Such  a  covering  will  also  prove  help- 
ful in  protecting  the  surface  silage  from  frost  in 
cold  areas,  where  there  may  be  danger  from 
such  a  source. 

Feeding  from  a  Part  of  the  Surface. — When 
the  silage  is  fed  from  only  a  part  of  the  surface  of 
the  silo,  that  is  to  say,  when  a  section  of  the  mass 
only  is  being  fed  from,  the  side  of  the  mass  adjacent 
to  that  from  which  the  silage  is  being  fed  is  thus 
gradually  exposed  to  the  air.  Because  of  such  expo- 
sure the  silage  spoils  for  some  distance  in  from  the 
exposed  side.  The  extent  of  the  decay  will  depend 
in  some  measure  on  the  length  of  the  exposure  and 
on  the  compactness  of  the  mass.  It  will  vary  from 
a  few  to  several  inches.  Because  of  this  loss,  the 
plan  of  feeding  silage  by  this  method  should  be 
avoided  as  far  as  may  be  possible.  When  silage  is 
thus  removed,  some  sort  of  hay  knife  should  be  used 
in  cutting  down  the  side  of  the  mass.  The  surface 
exposed  will  then  be  smooth  and  the  waste  of  silage 
will  be  much  less  in  consequence. 


FEEDING   SILAGE.  353 

Because  of  this  waste  from  feeding  silage  thus 
in  sections,  it  may  be  better  to  have  one  or  more  par- 
titions in  the  silo.  This  can  be  managed  easily 
enough  in  a  square  or  oblong  silo,  but  it  is  practi- 
cally impossible  in  a  stave  silo,  because  of  the  resist- 
ance which  a  partition  would  offer  to  the  tightening 
of  the  staves  sometimes  required  with  a  stave  silo. 
When  partitions  are  used,  one  section  of  the  silage 
can  be  all  fed  out  before  another  section  is  disturbed. 
But  it  should  be  remembered,  as  already  intimated, 
that  the  greater  the  number  of  partitions  in  a  silo 
the  greater  relatively  is  the  loss  of  spoiled  silage 
likely  to  be. 

Conveying  Silage  to  the  Animals. — When  the 
silo  is  not  close  to  the  place  of  feeding  and  when 
large  quantities  of  silage  are  to  be  fed,  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  draw  the  silage  in  a  cart  or  dray,  from 
which  it  can  be  shoveled  into  the  feed  mangers.  But 
when  the  silo  is  near  to  the  place  of  feeding,  the  food 
can  best  be  conveyed  in  a  box  truck  or  car,  a  hand 
cart  or  a  basket.  If  conveyed  in  a  truck  or  car,  the 
track  on  which  it  runs  should  of  course  be  laid  in 
the  feeding  alley  in  front  of  the  mangers,  so  that 
the  silage  may  be  shoveled  from  the  car  or  truck 
into  the  mangers.  When  conveyed  in  a  hand  cartt 
one  with  three  wheels  and  drawn  or  pushed  by 
means  of  a  short  tongue  is  very  convenient,  since  it 
may  be  easily  moved  from  place  to  place  and  easily 
turned  within  a  limited  area.  When  fed  in  limited 
quantities  the  silage  may  be  carried  in  a  basket. 
When  conveyed  in  a  box  car,  truck  or  hand  cart,  the 
silage  can  be  thrown  directly  into  one  or  the  other 
of  these  from  the  silo.  A  fork  with  several  tines  in 
23 


354  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

it  may  be  used  with  much  effectiveness  in  lifting 
the  silage  in  the  silo,  and  the  shorter  the  lengths  to 
which  the  food  has  been  cut,  the  more  readily  may 
it  be  removed.  None  of  the  silage  thrown  out  of 
the  silo  should  be  allowed  to  remain  unfed,  or  it  will 
at  once  begin  to  deteriorate. 

Carrying  Silage  Over  to  Another  Season. — As 
previously  intimated,  it  is  possible  to  carry  silage 
over  from  one  season  to  another.  But  it  cannot  be 
thus  carried  over  without  some  loss.  As  soon  as  the 
feeding  of  the  silage  ceases  for  the  season,  decay 
begins  on  the  exposed  surface  and  it  penetrates  the 
same  to  a  certain  depth,  more  or  less  according  to 
the  degree  of  compactness  in  the  silage.  In  any 
event  it  will  be  spoiled  to  the  depth  of  several  inches, 
and  up  to  the  present  time  no  effective  method  of 
preventing  such  decay  has  been  discovered,  which 
is  not  too  costly  to  justify  applying  it.  But  before 
the  refilling  of  the  silo  begins,  the  spoiled  silage 
should  first  be  carefully  removed. 

Adaptation  to  Different  Classes  of  Animals. — 
Although  silage  may  be  fed  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep 
and  swine,  it  is  not  equally  adapted  to  these  various 
classes  of  animals,  nor  is  it  equally  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  all  animals  of  the  same  class.  Much 
depends  upon  the  age  of  the  animals,  the  other  food 
adjuncts  that  are  commonly  fed  to  them  and  the 
precise  object  or  objects  for  which  they  are  kept.  It 
furnishes  excellent  food  for  colts,  brood  mares  and 
horses  that  are  not  being  worked.  Only  small  quan- 
tities should  be  fed  to  horses  that  are  being  worked 
moderately  and  still  less  to  horses  that  are  being 
severely  worked.  Like  all  other  green  foods  it 


FEEDING  SILAGE.  355 

induces  too  lax  a  condition  of  the  bowels  when  fed  in 
any  considerable  quantities  to  horses  that  labor 
hard. 

The  best  results  probably  are  obtained  from 
feeding  silage  to  milch  cows.  Because  of  its  succu- 
lence it  is  favorable  to  milk  production,  and  when 
properly  preserved  it  does  not  in  any  way  injuriously 
affect  the  quality  of  the  milk.  It  also  furnishes 
excellent  food  for  young  cattle,  store  cattle  and  cattle 
that  are  being  finished  for  beef.  But  to  obtain  the 
very  best  results,  the  silage  must  be  fed  with  judg- 
ment and  discretion. 

Silage  furnishes  good  food  for  sheep  of  all 
ages,  but  in  very  cold  weather  caution  should  be  used 
as  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  fed.  When  fed  freely 
at  such  a  time,  much  of  the  silage  will  become  cold 
before  it  is  consumed,  since  sheep  are  usually  fed  in 
sheds  in  which  the  temperature  within  is  not  far 
different  from  the  temperature  without.  It  is  not 
wise  to  feed  green  food  in  a  cold  condition  at  such 
a  time  when  such  feeding  can  be  avoided.  Since 
cattle  sheds  are  usually  warmer  than  sheep  sheds, 
there  is  not  the  same  objection  to  feeding  silage  to 
cattle  thus  protected  in  severely  cold  weather. 

Silage  has  not  proved  a  really  good  food  for 
swiue.  It  is  usually  too  bulky  and  is  in  consequence 
not  well  adapted  to  the  digestive  system  of  swine. 
Nevertheless,  a  little  of  it  may  be  fed  to  them  with 
some  advantage.  Brood  sows  and  store  pigs  will 
chew  over  the  parts  rejected  by  other  stock  and  will 
doubtless  get  some  benefit  therefrom.  But  it  is  at 
least  questionable  as  to  whether  silage  should  be  fed 
5n  any  considerable  quantity  to  hogs  that  are  being 


356  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO, 

fattened.  Something,  however,  depends  upon  the 
materials  included  in  the  silage. 

Quantities  of  Silage  to  Feed. — Much  difference 
of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  quantities  of  silage  that 
may  be  fed  with  advantage.  Some  authorities  claim 
that  it  may  be  made  the  sole  food  of  animals  for 
weeks  and  months  in  succession.  That  is  not  the 
view  of  the  Author.  Much  of  course  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  silage.  When  it  has  been 
well  preserved,  the  silage  is  not  markedly  acid,  but 
it  is  acid  in  some  degree.  Now  that  is  not  the  con- 
dition in  which  nature  provides  green  food  for  live 
stock,  hence  it  does  not  seem  wise  to  confine  animals 
to  a  diet  so  acid.  To  test  this  question,  the  Author 
fed  steers  that  were  being  fattened  on  silage  and 
meal  for  a  period  averaging  about  140  days  and 
during  three  successive  experiments. 

These  experiments  were  conducted  at  the  gov- 
ernment experiment  station  at  Guelph,  Ontario, 
Can.  The  first  experiment  began  in  the  autumn 
of  1889.  Two  steers  were  thus  fed  each  winter. 
They  were  pitted  against  an  equal  number  of  steers 
that  were  fed  meal,  an  average  of  thirty-three  pounds 
of  corn  silage  per  day  and  all  the  cut  hay  they  would 
eat  in  addition.  A  third  lot  of  two  steers  were  fed 
meal,  cut  hay  and  field  roots.  The  amount  of  meal 
fed  was  practically  the  same  in  each  instance.  Of 
the  six  steers  that  were  fed  all  the  silage  they  would 
consume  in  addition  to  the  meal,  two  died  before  the 
experiments  were  completed.  The  veterinarian  of 
the  station  reported  that  death  resulted  from  serious 
derangement  in  the  digestive  organs  caused  by  the 
acid  in  the  silage.  More  or  less  trouble  was  also 


FEEDING   SILAGfe.  357 

experienced  with  all  the  steers  confined  to  the  ration 
of  meal  and  silage.  They  occasionally  got  "off  their 
feed."  The  steers  fed  on  the  ration  of  meal,  hay 
and  roots  were  uniformly  healthy  and  hearty 
throughout  the  experiment.  With  silage  less  acid, 
the  fatal  results  chronicled  might  not  have  occurred. 
But  since  the  silage  fed  was  quite  as  well  preserved 
as  corn  silage  usually  is,  the  inference  would  seem 
fair  that  there  is  an  element  of  danger  in  feeding 
silage  in  unlimited  quantities  to  farm  animals  for 
months  in  succession.  The  full  details  of  these 
experiments  are  given  in  Bulletins  XLIX,  LXI  and 
LXXXII,  issued  by  the  aforementioned  station. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  how 
much  silage  may  be  fed  for  a  prolonged  period  to 
cattle  without  crossing  the  danger  line,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Author  it  is  questionable  if  the  amount 
fed  daily  to  a  mature  breeding  animal  of  the  bovine 
species  should  exceed  thirty  to  forty  pounds  per  day. 
Of  course  for  a  limited  period  it  may  be  safe  to  feed 
larger  quantities,  and  it  is  possible  that  larger-  quan- 
tities than  those  named  have  been  fed  to  breeding 
animals  for  a  period  somewhat  prolonged  without 
any  apparent  harm.  Nevertheless,  the  conclusion 
would  seem  fair  that  there  is  an  element  of  danger 
in  feeding  silage  in  unlimited  quantities  to  animals 
for  months  in  succession.  The  most  intelligent 
feeders  concur  in  this  view,  and  it  finds  farther 
countenance  in  the  craving  which  domestic  animals 
manifest  for  a  certain  proportion  of  dry  fodder  while 
silage  is  being  fed  to  them  in  large  quantities. 

Four  to  five  pounds  per  day  may  be  named  as 
the  maximum  amounts  to  be  fed  to  breeding  ewes 


358  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

for  months  in  succession,  but  it  is  possible,  and 
indeed,  it  may  be  commendable  to  feed  larger  quan- 
tities for  a  limited  period. 

Any  kind  of  fodder  that  is  palatable  and  well 
preserved  may  be  fed  along  with  the  silage.  But 
when  practicable  the  fodder  thus  given  should  be 
made  as  far  as  possible  to  give  the  entire  ration  the 
desired  balance  or  equilibrium  as  to  food  nutrients. 
For  instance,  when  corn  silage  is  being  fed,  clover 
in  any  of  its  forms  will  make  a  ration  more  nearly 
balanced  than  would  be  obtained  from  feeding  dry 
fodder,  the  product  of  corn,  sorghum  or  any  of  the 
non-saccharine  sorghums. 

Feeding  Grain  or  Meal  with  Silage. — Addi- 
tional meal  is  frequently  given  to  animals  that  are 
receiving  silage.  In  all  such  instances  the  silage 
furnishes  an  excellent  medium  with  which  to  feed 
the  meal.  It  is  the  practice  with  some  to  mix  the 
meal  with  the  silage  in  a  feed  room  before  feeding 
the  mixture.  But  the  extra  labor  thus  involved  does 
not  seem  to  be  necessary,  unless  when  other  cut 
fodder  is  also  to  be  mixed  with  the  silage.  The 
method  of  placing  the  silage  in  the  feed  manger  and 
then  scattering  the  meal  over  it  is  simpler,  and  it  is 
probably  quite  as  efficacious.  The  animals  mix  the 
food  measurably  well  while  in  the  act  of  eating  it. 
When  the  meal  is  fed  thus,  different  quantities  of  the 
same  or  different  kinds  of  meal  may  be  fed  as  may 
be  desired  to  the  individual  animals.  Such  varia- 
tions in  feeding  the  meal  cannot  be  so  well  made, 
if  indeed  made  at  all,  when  the  meal  and  silage  are 
mixed  in  the  feed  room.  When  other  cut  fod- 
der is  fed  it  would  probably  involve  less  labor 


FEEDING  SILAGE.  359 

to  feed  the  silage  and  other  fodder  separately. 
This  at  least  would  sometimes  be  true.  In  such 
instances,  the  meal  should  be  fed  with  the  other 
fodder  to  induce  a  greater  consumption  of  the 
same.  Silage  is  more  appetizing  as  a  rule  than 
other  cut  food,  especially  when  the  latter  is  fed  in 
the  dry  form,  hence  it  will  usually  be  eaten  with 
avidity  without  being  admixed  with  meal.  This  is 
not  true  of  some  kinds  of  dry  fodder,  nor  is  it  true 
probably  to  the  same  extent  of  any  kind  of  fodder. 

When  feeding  meal  along  with  silage,  the 
amount  of  grain  that  the  silage  may  contain  should 
be  considered,  and  the  amount  of  the  meal  fed  regu- 
lated accordingly.  For  instance,  while  it  may  be 
necessary  to  feed  ten  pounds  of  silage  daily  to  dairy 
cows  receiving  a  large  proportion  of  corn  silage 
which  has  little  or  no  grain  in  it,  that  amount  might 
prove  excessive  when  the  corn  silage  contains  rela- 
tively a  large  proportion  of  grain.  It  is  practically 
impossible  to  know  exactly  the  proportion  of  the 
grain  which  the  silage  contains,  but  a  sufficiently 
approximate  estimate  may  be  made  by  the  prac- 
ticed feeder. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  meal  fed  so  as  to  balance  the  ration. 
For  instance,  should  the  silage  contain  much  of  the 
seed  of  the  soy  bean,  it  would  be  proper  to  add  corn, 
or  some  other  carbonaceous  meal,  with  much  free- 
dom. But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  contain 
much  corn  and  no  other  grain,  it  would  be  in  order 
to  add  much  bran  or  other  nitrogenous  meal. 

Feeding  Silage  with  Field  Roots. — It  is  not 
common  to  feed  silage  and  field  roots  together,  for 


360  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

the  reason  chiefly  that  farmers  do  not  commonly 
grow  both  crops  to  any  considerable  extent  the  same 
season.  In  some  degree  at  least  these  foods  serve 
the  same  end,  that  is  to  say,  they  furnish  succulent 
food  for  animals  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  it 
cannot  usually  be  obtained  from  other  sources.  Both 
are  favorable  to  milk  production,  and  when  fed  in 
moderation  both  serve  as  regulators  of  digestion. 
Field  roots  contain  less  dry  matter,  but  they  are 
considered,  all  in  all,  a  more  healthful  food  than 
silage.  They  are  also  looked  upon  as  being  more 
favorable  to  the  robust  development  of  young  stock. 
But  it  is  commonly  believed  that  the  cost  of  growing 
field  roots  is  relatively  greater.  There  does  not 
seem  to  be  much  reason,  therefore,  for  growing  both 
foods  in  large  quantities.  Which  of  the  two  should 
be  given  the  preference  ought  to  be  determined 
largely  by  the  more  favorable  character  of  the  con- 
ditions for  growing  one  or  the  other.  When  both 
are  grown,  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
be  fed  to  the  same  animals,  regulating  the  quantity 
of  each  accordingly.  When  both  are  fed,  the  plan 
of  feeding  silage  in  the  morning  and  roots  in  the 
evening,  or  vice  versa,  will  be  found  labor-saving  as 
compared  with  feeding  both  twice  a  day,  and  the  end 
sought  should  be  realized  as  effectively. 

When  to  Feed  Silage. — When  a  large  quantity 
of  silage  is  being  fed  it  should  be  given  in  two  feeds 
daily,  that  is  to  say,  morning  and  evening.  When 
meal  is  to  be  fed  twice  a  day,  it  may  be  well  also  to 
feed  the  silage  twice  a  day,  that  the  silage  may  be 
fed  along  with  the  meal  as  previously  intimated. 
But  when  only  a  small  quantity  of  silage  is  to  be  fed 


FEEDING   SILAGE.  361 

and  no  meal,  the  result  from  feeding  only  once  a  day 
will  probably  be  quite  as  satisfactory  as  from  feeding 
twice.  The  silage  is  usually  fed  before  the  bulky 
food,  since  the  latter  is  the  unlimited  factor  in 
the  ration. 

Some  forethought  should  be  exercised  in  adjust- 
ing the  quantities  of  silage  fed  to  the  prospective 
needs  of  the  animals.  For  instance,  if  the  feeder 
has  been  feeding  a  certain  amount  of  food  daily,  and 
if  he  has  reason  to  fear  that  by  continuing  to  feed 
thus  the  supply  of  silage  will  fail  before  the  new 
grass  is  plentiful,  it  would  be  better  to  reduce  the 
quantity  of  silage  fed  daily  than  to  have  the  silage 
fall  short  before  the  period  indicated.  While  green 
food  is  always  more  or  less  helpful  in  regulating 
digestion  wrhen  dry  food  is  being  fed,  it  is  never 
more  helpful  than  toward  the  approach  of  spring. 
The  system  of  the  animals  is  much  prone  to  become 
weakened  at  such  a  time,  more  especially  in  cold 
latitudes,  hence  the  greater  ne«d  for  the  adjustment 
of  the  food  to  the  requirements  of  these  under  the 
conditions  just  named. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  evident ;  first, 
that  much  has  been  learned  during  recent  years  with 
reference  to  silos  and  the  making  of  silage ;  second, 
that  when  silage  is  properly  cured  and  fed  it  is  an 
economical  and  health-producing  food;  and  third, 
that  because  of  its  economy  and  healthfulness  this 
mode  of  preserving  food  is  likely  to  grow  in  favor. 
Nevertheless,  it  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  many 
things  are  yet  to  be  learned  about  silos  and  ensiling 
food  in  the  same.  The  system  is  yet  in  the  infantile 
stage.  Many  features  of  the  work  have  not  yet  been 


32  SOILING    CROPS    AND    THE    SILO. 

fully  wrought  out,  and  prominent  among  these  are 
the  construction  of  silos  that  will  be  sufficiently 
durable,  and  the  making  of  good  silage  with  reason- 
able certainty  from  other  products  than  corn. 


INDEX 


PAGE. 

Alfalfa 86 

discussion  of 86 

distribution  of   89 

soils   for    90 

place  in  the  rotation  for 92 


Preparing  the  soil  for 93 
ertilizers    for    95 

sowing    96 


cultivation   97 

feeding  as  soiling  food   98 

for  silage   330 

Alsike  clover    69 

for   soiling    84 

for  silage 330 

Antiquity  of  siloing 248 

Artichokes   226 

Benefits   from  growing    soiling 

crops    6 

from  siloing  crops 258 

Brassica  genus,  plants  of  the  139-167 

introductory  remarks   139 

_  rape 139 

Cabbage 154 

discussion  of   154-167 

distribution  of   157 

soils  for 157 

place  in  the  rotation  of 158 

Jreparing  the  soil  for 159 
ertilizers  for   160 

sowi i  ng    161 

cultivation   164 

feeding    165 

Cereals  (wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  rye) 

discussion  of 168-182 

distribution  of   170 

soils  for 172 

place  in  the  rotation  for  ....    173 

preparing  the  soil  for 1 74 

fertilizers  for    175 

sowing   175 

cultivation   179 

feeding  as  soiling  food 179 

for  silage 33* 

Clover 

discussion  of 68-no 

medium  red    68 

mammoth    69 

alsike    69 

crimson  or  scarlet 69 


PACK. 

Clover — Continued. 

alfalfa    86 

distribution  of   71 

soils  for 73 

place  in  the  rotation  for 74 

•   preparing  the  soil  for 76 

fertilizers    for    78 

sowing    79 

cultivation    84 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 84 

for  silage 330 

Common  cereals   168-182 

Common  vetch 110-118 

Corn,  Indian  or  maize 

discussion    of    19-33 

distribution  of   21 

soils  for 21 

place  in  the  rotation  for 22 

preparing  the  soil  for 23 

fertilizers  for 24 

sowing   24 

cultivation   29 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 30 

for  silage 323 

Cowpea 

discussion  of 128-138 

distribution  of   131 

soils  for 132 

place  in  the  rotation  for  ....    132 

preparing  the  soil  for 133 

fertilizers  for 133 

sowing    134 

cultivation   136 

feeding,   as   soiling   food 136 

for  silage 3^7 

Crimson  or  scarlet  clover 69 

Crops   for  soiling    3 

Crops  suitable  for  the  silo 

discussion  of 322 

corn    323 

sorghum    325 

non-saccharine  sorghums 327 

leguminous  plants  other  than 

clover   327 

field  peas 3^7 

common  vetch    327 

soy  bean   327 

cowpea 327 

plants  of  the  clover  family..   33° 
medium  red 330 


363 


INDEX- 


PAGE. 

Plants  of  the  clover  family — 
Continued. 

mammoth 330 

alsike     330 

alfalfa 330 

millets    331 

the  common  cereals 332 

field  roots   333 

rape 334 

sunflowers   335 

Dhourra 54 

Distribution  of  silos 266 

Ensilage  or  silage  (definition)   . .  246 
Ensiling  or  siloing  (definition)    .248 
Facts   relating  to   silo   construc- 
tion       269 

Feeding  silage 350 

when  it  may  begin   350 

feed  from  top  downward  ....   356 
feeding    from    a   part   of   the 

surface 352 

conveying  silage  to  the  animals  353 
carrying  silage  over  to  an- 
other season 354 

adaptation  to  different  classes 

of  animals 354 

quantities  of  silage  to  feed  . .  .356 
feeding  grain    or    meal    with 

silage    358 

feeding     silage     with     field 

roots   359 

when  to  feed  silage   360 

Field  Peas 

discussion  of   102-110 

distribution  of   104 

soils  for 104 

place  in  the  rotation  for  ....    105 

preparing  the  soil  for    105 

fertilizers  for   106 

sowing    106 

cultivation   1 08 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 109 

for  silage   327 

Field  Roots 

discussion  of   195-204 

rutabagas   196 

turnips   196 

mangels    197 

sugar  beets   197 

carrots    197 

distribution   of    196 

soils  for   197 

place  in  the  rotation  for 198 

preparing  the  soil  for 199 

fertilizers  for 200 

sowing    200 

cultivation     202 

feeding,   as   soiling  food    ....    203 

for  silage   333 

Filling  the  silo   336 

stage  of  harvesting  crops  for 

the   silo    336 

cutting  crops  for  the  silo 338 

conveying  crops  to  the  silo  . . .   339 


PAGH. 

Filling  the  silo — Continued. 

putting  crops  into  the  silo   .  . .  340 

putting  the  food  into  the  silo  .  342 

covering  the  silage 345 

Flat   pea    220 

Grouping  states  and  provinces.  .  234 

History  of  siloing 245 

Horse  Bean 

for  spiling 213 

for  silage 329 

Japan  clover   209 

Jerusalem  corn 54 

Kaffir   corn    51 

Kale    216 

Leguminous  plants  other  than 

clover 1 02 

for  soiling 102 

for   silage    327 

The  common  vetch 

for  spiling no 

for  silage 327 

The  soy  bean 

for   spiling    126 

for   silage    327 

The  cowpea 

for  spiling 136 

for  silage 327 

Lupines    224 

Mammoth  clover 

for    soiling    84 

for  silage 330 

Mangels    197 

Medium   red  clover 

for    spiling    84 

for   silage    330 

Millets 

discussion    and    classification 

of   183-194 

distribution  of   185 

soils  for 187 

place  in  the  rotation  for   ....  188 

preparing  the  soil  for 189 

fertilizers  for   190 

sowing    191 

cultivation   192 

feeding  as  soiling  food 193 

for   silage    331 

Milo  maize    52 

Miscellaneous  plants 205-231 

white  clover    205 

sweet  clover    207 

Japan  clover   209 

sainfoin    210 

trefoil  or  yellow  clover 212 

horse  bean 213 

velvet  bean   214 

kale 216 

sand   vetch    217 

flat  pea 220 

white  mustard    222 

lupine 224 

spurry 225 

artichokes    226 

prickly    comf rey    226 


INDEX. 


365 


PAGE. 

Miscellaneous  plants — Continued. 

sunflower 230 

sacaline    230 

Mustard,  white    222 

Non-saccharine  sorghums 

discussion  of Sl~6? 

kaffir  corn   51 

milo  maize    52 

dhourra   54 

Jerusalem  corn    54 

teosinte    56 

distribution  of   58 

soils   for    61 

place  in  the  rotation  for 62 

preparing  the  soil  for 63 

fertilizers  for   64 

sowing    64 

cultivation   66 

feeding,  as  soiling   food 67 

for   silage    327 

Objections  to  soiling 15 

Peas,  field 102-1 10 

Preserving  green  crops  without 

the  silo 347 

prickly  comfrey   226 

Ra'pe 

disciission  of   I39-J54 

distribution  of   142 

soils  for   143 

place  in  the  rotation  for 144 

preparing  the  soil  for 14! 

fertilizers  for   146 

sov.-ing    14 

cultivation   14 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 150 

for  silage 334 

Rectangular  silo 31Q 

introductory  remarks 310 

foundation 3IQ 

sills   311 

floor    

studs 312 

inner  lining 3*; 

outer  lining    31' 

partitions 

corners 3*5 

doors    3 l 

roof    3I 

Red  clover,  medium 61 

Roots,  field 195-204 

Round  wooden  silo 292 

Rutabagas 19 

Sacaline   23< 

Sainfoin    21 

Sand  vetch    21 

Scarlet  or  crimson  clover   6c 

Silage  or  ensilage  (definition)  . .  24 
Silo 

early  25 

modern 25 

not  always  a  necessity 26 

distribution  of   26* 

division  No.  i— distribution  in  26 


PACK. 
Silo^Continued. 

division  No.  2 — distribution  in  267 
division  No.  3 — distribution  in  267 
construction,  facts  relating  to.. 269 

locating  the  silo 269 

forms  of  construction 272 

size   274 

materials  used  in    277 

metals , 278 

concrete   or   grout 278 

brick  279 

stone 279 

v/ood 280 

foundations 280 

floors    281 

linings    282 

boards    282 

cement    283 

water   lime    283 

plaster    284 

shingles    284 

bricks  284 

metals 284 

tarred  paper 285 

preservatives  for  lining 285 

partitions  in  silos 286 

doors  in  silos 288 

roofing  silos 288 

decay    in    silos 289 

building  the  silo    292 

round  wooden  silo 292 

round  frame 293 

stave  silo   295 

rectangular  silo    3*° 

stone  silo 3*7 

crops  suitable  for  the  silo 322 

filling  the  silo 336 

feeding  silage 35° 

Siloing  or  ensiling  (definition) ..  248 

Siloing  crops,  benefits  from   . . .   258 

wholesale  harvesting  of  crops  258 

cured  in  showery  weather 259 

green  food  all  the  vear 259 

food  more  palatable    261 

economy  in  storage  place 262 

economy  in  labor  when  feed- 
ing     262 

practic-il  considerations   263 

benefits  do  not  apply  equally.. 263 
silos  not  always  a  necessity  . .  265 

Siloing,  history  of 245 

plan  of  the  discussion 245 

definition  of  terms 246 

ensilage  or  silage 246 

siloing  or  ensiling 24° 

siloist    24» 

antiquity   of   siloing    248 

utilization  of  the  idea 249 

the  earlier  silos   250 

the  modern  silo .-  •  •  •  251 

American  progress  in  siloing.. 253 
mistakes  made  by  early  siloists  253 

literature  on  the  silo 254 

Siloist  (definition)  248 


366 


INDEX. 


Soiling    crops,    benefits    from 

growing  o 

Soiling  crops    3 

adaptation  in  soiling  crops  ...  4 
partial  and  complete  soiling  . .  4 
benefits  from  growing  soiling 

crops 6 

increase  in  food  supplies 6 

less  waste  in  feeding 7 

sustains  animals  in  better  form.  8 
inquiry  through  poaching  ....  1 1 
influence  on  weed  eradication.,  n 

saving  in  land 12 

saving  in  fences 13 

saving  in  fertility 14 

increase  in  animal  production. .  14 
sustaining  the  family  cow  ....  15 
some  objections  to  the  soiling 

system    15 

increased  outlay  for  labor  ....   15 

tax  on  attendants 17 

adjusting  food  supplies 17 

impaired  stamina  in  the  stock. .  18 

Sorghum 

discussion  of 34-50 

distribution  of   37 

soils  for 38 

place  in  the  rotation  for 38 

Preparing  the  soil  for 39 
ertilizers  for   41 

sowing    42 

cultivation   46 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 47 

for  silage 325 

Soy  bean 

discussion  of 1 18-128 

distribution  of 121 

soils  for 122 

place  in  the  rotation  for 123 

Jreparing  the  soil  for 124 
ertilizers  for 124 

sowing   124 

cultivation   126 

feeding  as  soiling  food 126 

for  silage    327 

Sjpurry  _ 225 

Stave  silo    295 

foundation 297 

floor 299 

staves 299 

setting  up  staves 300 


Stave  silo — Continued. 

splicing  staves  301 

hoops,  round   302 

flat 304 

woven  wire 304 

doors 305 

shute    307 

roof 308 

Stone  silos 317 

form  of  construction 318 

foundation 318 

floor    319 

walls 319 

inner  lining 319 

outer   lining    320 

roof 320 

doors    321 

Succession  in  soiling  crops.  .232-242 

introductory  remarks 232 

grouping  states  and  provinces. 234 
section  No.  i — succession  in..  235 
section  No.  2 — succession  in..  236 
section  No.  3 — succession  in..  237 
section  No.  4 — succession  in..  238 
section  No.  5 — succession  in..  239 
section  No.  6 — succession  in..  240 
section  No.  7 — succession  in..  240 
section  No.  8 — succession  in..  241 

Sugar  beets 197 

Sunflowers    230 

Sweet  clover 207 

Teosinte    56 

Trefoil  or  yellow  clover   212 

Turnips 196 

Velvet  bean 214 

Vetch,  the  common 

discussion    of    110-118 

distribution  of   in 

soils  for 112 

place  in  the  rotation  for  . . . .-  112 

preparing  the  soil  for 113 

fertilizers  for   113 

sowing    114 

cultivation   116 

feeding,  as  soiling  food 117 

for  silage 327 

Vetch,    sand    217 

Weeds  eradication  of,  by  soiling. .  n 

White  clover 305 

White   mustard    222 

Yellow  clover  or  trefoil 212 


STANDARD  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ASHLAND  BUILDING  PEOPLE'S  GAS  BUILDING 

315-32J   Fourth  Avenue  150    Michigan  Avenue 


Any  of  these  books  will  be  sent  by  mai7,  postpaid,  to 
any  part  of  the  world,  on  receipt  of  catalog  price.  We  are 
always  happy  to  correspond  with  our  patrons,  and  cordially 
invite  them  to  address  us  on  any  matter  pertaining  to  rural 
boof?s.  Send  for  our  large  illustrated  catalog,  free  on  appli- 
cation. 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

By  ALFRED  VIVIAN.  There  is  no  subject  of  more  ^ital 
Importance  to  the  farmer  than  that  of  the  best  method 
of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  very  evident 
decrease  in  the  fertility  of  those  soils  which  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years,  combined  with 
the  increased  competition  and  the  advanced  price  of  labor, 
have  convinced  the  intelligent  farmer  that  the  agriculture 
of  the  future  must  be  based  upon  more  rational  practices 
than  those  which  have  been  followed  in  the  past.  We 
have  felt  for  some  time  that  there  was  a  place  for  a 
brief,  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive,  treatise  on 
this  important  subject  of  Soil  Fertility.  Professor  Vivian's 
experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  short  winter  courses  has 
admirably  fitted  him  to  present  this  matter  in  a  popular 
style.  In  this  little  book  he  has  given  the  gist  of  the 
subject  in  plain  language,  practically  devoid  of  technical 
and  scientific  terms.  It  is  pre-eminently  a  "First  Book," 
and  will  be  found  especially  valuable  to  those  who  desire 
an  introduction  to  the  subject,  arid  who  intend  to  do  subse- 
quent reading.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  265  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.00 

The  Study  of  Corn 

By  PROF.  V.  M.  SHOESMITH.  A  most  helpful  book  to  all 
farmers  and  students  interested  in  the  selection  and  im- 
provement of  corn.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  from  photo- 
graphs, all  of  which  carry  their  own  story  and  contribute 
their  part  in  making  pictures  and  text  matter  a  clear,  con- 
cise and  interesting  study  of  corn.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches. 

loo  pages.     Cloth- Net,  $0.50 

(1) 


The  Management  and  Feeding  of  Cattle 

By  PROF.  THOMAS  SHAW.  The  place  for  this  book  will 
be  at  once  apparent  when  it  is  ^stated  that  it  is  the  first 
book  that  has  ever  been  written  which  discusses  the  man- 
agement and  feeding  of  cattle,  from  the  birth  of  the  calf 
until  it  has  fulfilled  its  mission  in  life,  whether  on  the 
block  or  at  the  pail.  The  book  is  handsomely  printed  on 
fine  paper,  from  large,  clear  type.  Fully  illustrated.  5^x8 
inches.  496  pages.  .  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Farmer's  Veterinarian 

By  CHARLFS  WILLIAM  BURKETT.  This  book  abounds  in 
helpful  suggestions  and  valuable  information  for  the  most 
successful  treatment  of  ills  and  accidents,  and  disease 
troubles.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  diseases  of  farm 
stock;  containing  brief  and  popular  advice  on  the  nature, 
cause  and  treatment  of  disease,  the  common  ailments  and 
the  care  and  management  of  stock  when  sick.  It  is 
profusely  illustrated,  containing  a  number  of  halftone 
illustrations,  and  a  great  many  drawings  picturing  diseases, 
their  symptoms  and  familiar  attitudes  assumed  by  farm 
animals  when  affected  with  disease,  and  presents,  for  the 
first  time,  a  plain,  practical  and  satisfactory  guide  for 
farmers  who  are  interested  in  the  common  diseases  of  the 
farm.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  288  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $1.50. 

First  Lessons  in  Dairying 

By  HUBERT  E.  VAN  NORMAN.  This  splendid  little  book 
has  been  written  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  to  fill 
a  place  in  dairy  literature  long  needed.  It  is  designed 
primarily  as  a  practical  guide  to  successful  dairying,  an 
elementary  text-book  for  colleges  and  for  use  especially 
in  short-course  classes.  It  embodies  underlying  principles 
involved  in  the  handling  of  milk,  delivery  to  factory,  ship- 
ping station,  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  on  the  farm. 
It  is  written  in  a  simple,  popular  way,  being  free  from  tech- 
nical terms,  and  is  easily  understood  by  the  average  farm 
boy.  The  book  is  just  the  thing  for  the  every-day  dairy- 
man, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  farmer  in  the 
country.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  TOO  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $0.50. 

A  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide 

By  H.  E.  Ross.  While  the  book  is  intended  primarily 
for  use  in  the  laboratory,  it  should  be  of  value  to  the 
practical  dairyman.  The  time  has  come  when  the  suc- 
cessful dairyman  must  study  hin  business  from  a  purely 
scientific  point  of  view,  and  in  this  book  the  scientific 
principles,  upon  which  dairy  industry  is  based,  are  stated 
clearly  and  simply,  nnd  wherever  it  is  possible,  these  prin- 
ciples are  illustrated  by  practical  problems  and  examples. 
90  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth Net,  $0.50 

(2) 


Profitable  Stock  Raising 

By  CLARENCE  A.  SHAMEL.  This  book  covers  fully  the 
principles  of  breeding  and  feeding  for  both  fat  stock  and 
dairying  type.  It  tells  of  sheep  and  mutton  raising,  hot 
house  lambs,  the  swine  industry  and  the  horse  market. 
Finally,  he  tells  of  the  preparation  of  stock  for  the  market 
and  how  to  prepare  it  so  that  it  will  bring  a  high  market 
price.  Live  stock  is  the  most  important  feature  of  farm 
life,  and  statistics  show  a  production  far  short  of  the 
actual  requirements.  There  are  many  problems  to  be 
faced  in  the  profitable  production  of  stock,  and  these  are 
fully  and  comprehensively  covered  in  Mr.  Shamel's  new 
book.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  288  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.50 

The  Business  of  Dairying 

By  C.  B.  LANE.  The  author  of  this  practical  little  book 
is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  manner  in  which 
he  has  treated  so  important  a  subject.  It  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  dairy  students,  producers  and  handlers 
of  milk,  and  all  who  make  dairying  a  business.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  present  in  a  clear  and  concise  manner  various 
business  methods  and  systems  which  will  help  the  dairy- 
man to  reap  greater  profits.  This  book  meets  the  needs 
of  the  average  dairy  farmer,  and  if  carefully  followed  will 
lead  to  successful  dairying.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an 
elementary  textbook  for  colleges,  and  especially  in  short- 
course  classes.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  300  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.25 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Buttermaking 

By  CHAS  A.  PUBLOW.  This  book  is  entirely  different 
from  the  usual  type  of  dairy  books,  and  is  undoubtedly  in 
a  class  by  itself.  The  entire  subject  of  butter-making  in 
all  its  branches  has  been  most  thoroughly  treated,  and 
many  new  and  important  features  have  been  added.  The 
tests  for  moisture,  salt  and  acid  have  received  special 
attention,  as  have  also  the  questions  on  cream  separa- 
tion, pasteurization,  commercial  starters,  cream  ripening, 
cream  overrun,  marketing  of  butter,  and  creamery  man- 
agement. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $0.50 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Milk  and  Milk  Testing 

By  CHAS.  A.  PUBLOW,  and  HUGH  C.  TROY.  A  book  that 
no  student  in  the  dairy  industry  can  afford  to  be  without. 
No  other  treatise  of  its  kind  is  available,  and  no  book  of 
its  size  gives  so  much  practical  and  useful  information  in 
the  study  of  milk  and  milk  products.  Illustrated.  5x7 
inches.  100  pages.  Cloth.  Net,  $0.50 

(3) 


Soils 

By  CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT,  Director  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  The  most  complete  and 
popular  work  of  the  kind  ever  published.  As  a  rule,  a 
book  of  this  sort  is  dry  and  uninteresting,  but  in  this  case 
it  reads  like  a  novel.  The  author  has  put  into  it  his  in- 
dividuality. The  story  of  the  properties  of  the  soils,  their 
improvement  and  management,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
the  problems  of  crop  growing  and  crop  feeding,  make  this 
book  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher. 
Illustrated.  303  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth.  .  Net,  $1.25 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  PAMMEL.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
to  several  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  the  United 
States,  caused  by  weeds  stimulate  us  to  adopt  a  better 
system  of  agriculture.  The  weed  question  is,  therefore 
a  most  important  and  vital  one  for  American  farmen 
This  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  treat  his  field  to 
remove  weeds.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings  made  expressly  for  this  work,  and 
will  prove  invaluable  to  every  farmer,  land  owner,  gar- 
dener and  park  superintendent.  5x7  inches.  300  pages. 
Cloth Net,  $1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON  and  L.  W.  CHASE.  Farm  Machinery 
and  Farm  Motors  is  the  first  American  book  published 
on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery  since  that  written  by 
J.  J.  Thomas  in  1867.  This  was  before  the  development 
of  many  of  the  more  important  farm  machines,  and  the 
general  application  of  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  indispensable  in  present-day 
farming  operations,  and  a  practical  book  like  Farm  Ma- 
chinery and  Farm  Motors  will  fill  a  much-felt  need.  The 
book  has  been  written  from  lectures  used  by  the  authors 
before  their  classes  for  several  years,  and  which  were  pre- 
pared from  practical  experience  and  a  thorough  review  of 
the  literature  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Although  written 
•primarily  as  a  text-book,  it  is  equally  useful  for  the  prac- 
,  tical  farmer.  Profusely  illustrated.  5^2x8  inches.  520 
pages.  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  DONDLINGER.  This  book  comprises  a  complete 
study  of  everything  pertaining  to  wheat.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  student  of  economic  as  well  as  agricultural  condi- 
tions, well  fitted  by  the  broad  experience  in  both  practical 
and  theoretical  lines  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  a  condensed 
form.  It  is  designed  for  the  farmer,  the  teacher,  and  the 
student  as  well.  Illustrated.  5^x8  inches.  370  pages. 
Cloth.  ...  ,,.....  Net,  $2.00 

(4) 


The  Cereals  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT,  M.S.,  D.Agri.,  Professor  of  Agron- 
omy, Cornell  University.  If  you  raise  five  acres  of  any  kind 
of  grain  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without  this  book.  It  is  in 
every  way  the  best  book  on  the  subject  that  has  ever  been 
written.  It  treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every 
grain  crop  raised  in  America  in  a  thoroughly  practical  and 
accurate  manner.  The  subject-matter  includes  a  comprehen- 
sive and  succinct  treatise  of  wheat,  maize,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
rice,  sorghum  (kafir  corn)  and  buckwheat,  as  related  particu- 
larly to  American  conditions.  First-hand  knowledge  has  been 
the  policy  of  the  author  in  his  work,  and  every  crop  treated  is 
presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of  the  plant.  If  you 
have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best  that  bas  been 
written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages.  5^2x8 
inches.  Cloth $i-75 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT.  This  book  is  exactly  what  its  title 
indicates.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  student  and 
teacher  who  wishes  all  the  latest  and  most  important  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  forage  and  fiber  crops.  Like  its  famous 
companion,  "The  Cereals  in  America,"  by  the  same  author,  it 
treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every  one  of  the 
forage  and  fiber  crops.  With  this  book  in  hand,  you  have 
the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  information  available.  Illus- 
trated. 428  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth $1.75 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa 

History,  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
and  Fertilizer.  The  appearance  of  the  Hon.  F.  D.  COBURN'S 
little  book  on  Alfalfa  a  few  years  ago  has  been  a  profit  revela- 
tion to  thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  still  more  information  on  the  subject 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  the  present  volume,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  authoritative,  complete  and  valuable  work 
on  this  forage  crop  published  anywhere.  It  is  printed  on  fine 
p^per  and  illustrated  with  many  full-page  photographs  that 
were  taken  with  the  especial  view  of  their  relation  to  the  text. 
336  pages.  6^  x  9  inches.  Bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp- 
ing. It  is  unquestionably  the  handsomest  agricultural  refer- 
ence book  that  has  ever  been  issued.  Price,  postpaid,  .  $2.00 

Clean  Milk 

By  S.  D.  BELCHER,  M.D.  In  this  book  the  author  sets  forth 
practical  methods  for  the  exclusion  of  bacteria  from  milk, 
and  how  to  prevent  contamination  of  milk  from  the  stable 
to  the  consumer.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  146  pages. 

Cloth $100 

(5) 


Bean  Culture 

By  GLENN  C.  SEVEY,  B.S.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  pro 
duction  and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  oi 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value ;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  BEATTIE.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  en- 
gaged in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving 
a  clear  conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  The 
work  is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in 
a  window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  WILL  W.  TRACY.  The  author  has  rounded  up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  togetncr.  It  is  no  second- 
hand work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practici 
experiences  of  the  best-posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the 
world.  No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
book.  Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes, 
the  reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.  Illustrated.  150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  SAMUEL  FRASER.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  -the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  grower  and 
to  the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  Amer- 
ica. Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where 
there  is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard 
purposes,  and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will 
meet  with  a  warm  welcome.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $0.50 


ID 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


111! 


I 


